ESSENTIAL 

OGRAP 


BRIGHAMAND  M'EARLAKE 

FIRST  BOOK 


R£VIS£D  EDmON 


AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 


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SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

LDS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


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Fig.   1.     An  ocean  steamship  in  Its  doi  k.     Some  freight  is  unloaded  dirccHv  on  the  whnrf  or  pier,  and  some  is 

fransfcrrcd  to  lighters  or  barges 


ESSENTIALS  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

FIRST  BOOK 


BY 

ALBERT    PERRY    BRIGHAM    A.M.,  Sc.D.,    L.H.D. 

l^ROFESSOR  OF  GEOLOGY,  COLGATE  UNIVERSITY 
HAMILTON.  N.  Y. 

AND 

CHARLES    T.    McFARLANE,   Pd.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF   GEOGRAPHY,    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK 


REVISED    EDITION 


4  r  Q  0  4 

AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK         CINCINNATI  CHICAGO  BOSTON  ATLANTA 


Copyright,  1916,  1920,  by 
ALBERT  PERRY   BRTGHAM  anu  CHARLES  T.   McFAKLANE. 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 


ESSENTIALS   OF  GEOGRArHV,    FIRST   BOOK 


^.  P.  •.■,<;, 


a- 


-I 


PREFACE 


In  an  elementary  textbook  of  geojirapliv, 
three  things  are  of  prinie  importance,  tliat 
the  facts  and  principles  selected  shall  be  the 
essentials  of  our  knowledge  of  the  earth,  that 
they  be  within  the  understanding  of  the 
young,  and  that  they  be  set  forth  in  an  in- 
teresting manner. 

To  secure  these  ends  a  large  section  of  this 
book  is  devoted  at  the  outset  to  the  ways  of 
living  and  working,  which  ditter  iii  form  but 
agree  in  principle  among  all  men.      1  his  Hrst 
.,    section    includes    matter    of   the    kind    often 
^    called  "home  geography";    but  that  caption 
is  not  used   here,  because   real  home  geogra- 
phy must  be  developed  by  the  teacher,  who 
can   readily  apply  to  any  particular  locality 
the  principles  unfolded  on  pages  i  to  54. 
These    first    lessons    of   geography,    telling 
J,    how  men  work  and  live,  are  not  only  an  es- 
^     sential   part  of  the  study,   but  they  are  de- 
^'  signed  to  secure  the   pupil's   interest  in   the 
lessons    that    follow.     The    child    gains    new 
appreciation  of  what  he  does  and  of  what  is 
being  done  around  him  wlien   he  learns  that 
similar  things  are  done  in  remote  lands,  and 
,    he  takes  in  the  facts  of  distant  countries   and 
\    of  the  earth  as  a  whole  because  they  appeal 
^    to  his  human  interest. 

In  treating  the  earth  as  a  whole  (pages  55- 
69)  the  three  aims  above  stated  have  been 
^  carefully  kept  in  view.  The  conceptions  of 
^0  size  and  movement  of  the  earth  here  inv'olved 
are  essential  to  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy. The  facts  of  the  earth's  size,  shape, 
and  motions,  and  the  subjects  of  direction, 
latitude,  longitude,  and  seasons  are  presented 
in  clear  and  simple  statements  and  with 
ample  illustrations.  Unusual  atiention  is 
also  given  to  the  meaning  and  use  of  maps. 

Men  are  related  to  the  earth  and  to  each 
other  largely  through  the  products  of  the 
earth  and  their  exchange.  Both  books  of 
this  series  lay  great  emphasis  upon  production, 
manufacture,  and  trade.  Not  only  in  the 
introductory  sections  of  the  First  Book,  but 
also  throughout  the  regional  chapters,  the 
subjects  of  agriculture,  ()uarrying,  mining, 
fishing,  lumbering,  manufacturing  industries, 
transportation  routes,  and  commercial  ex- 
changes receive  much  attention.  Here  again 
the  facts  and  principles  are  essential,  compre- 


hensible, and  interesting.  The  subject  matter 
is  carefully  graded  in  reference  to  the  fuller 
and  more  elaborate  treatment  in  the  Second 
Book  of  the  scries. 

The  derangement  of  industry  caused  by  the 
recent  war,  great  though  it  is,  must  be  re- 
garded as  a  temporary  interruption  of  normal 
conditions.  It  is  therefore  thought  best,  in 
describing  the  industries  of  each  country, 
to  emphasize  conditions  as  they  are  in  normal 
times.  The  aim  is  to  present  matters  of 
permanent  importance  rather  than  those  of 
passing  interest. 

In  the  division  of  the  United  States  into 
groups  of  states,  the  books  conform  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  United  States  Census. 
This  grouping  has  the  .soundest  geographical, 
economic,  and  historical  basis;  and  is  in 
harmony  with  current  usage  in  newspapers 
and  periodicals. 

Since  maps  are  among  the  vital  materials 
of  study,  special  attention  has  been  given  to 
this  feature  of  the  series.  No  effort  has 
been  spared  to  make  the  maps  efficient  in 
expression  of  land  forms,  accurate  in  detail, 
harmonious  in  color,  clear  and  easily  read. 

The  pictorial  illustrations  in  both  books 
of  the  series  represent  large  collections  of 
recent  photographs  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  have  been  selected  for  their  value  as 
teaching  material.  Every  picture  has  its 
definite  purpose,  which  in  nearly  all  cases 
is  marked  by  a  reference  in  the  text.  The 
colored  views  are  not  introduced  as  orna- 
ments to  the  page;  like  the  other  pictures, 
they  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  text.  Color 
has  been  adopted  only  where  it  would  es- 
pecially   contribute    to   vivid    representation. 

Obligations  for  assistance  in  providing 
illustrations  and  in  perfecting  the  text  are 
so  numerous  as  to  make  personal  mention 
impracticable.  The  authors  are,  however, 
especially  grateful  to  those  expert  students 
and  teachers  of  geography  who  have  criticized 
the  text  in  plan  and  detail,  and  who  have  in 
manv  cases  been  instrumental  in  securing 
a  local  accuracy  and  color  which  could  not 
otherwise  have  been  attained. 

Albert  Perry  Brigham 
Charles  T.  McFarlane 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


How  People  Work  and  Live 

Food,  Clothing,  and  Shelter 

I 

Agriculture        .... 

9 

Dairying  and  Grazing 

i8 

Lumbering         .... 

21 

Quarrying  and  Mining 

24 

The  Waters  of  the  Earth,  and  the  F 

shing 

Industry         .... 

27 

Manufacturing 

34 

Commerce          .... 

37 

The  .'\tmosphere 

46 

Government       .... 

50 

The  Earth  as  a  Whole 

Form  and  Rotation  of  the  Earth;    Find 

ing  Directions  .... 
Land  and  Climate  .... 
Maps 

North  America 

The  Continent  .... 

The  United  States 
Our  Country  as  a  Whole 
The  New  England  States 
The  Middle  .Atlantic  States 
The  South  Atlantic  States 
The  South  Central  States 
The  North  Central  States 
The  Plateau  States    . 
The  Pacific  States 

Outlying     Possessions     of     the     United 
States  .  .         .         .         .         . 


55 
61 
66 


71 

81 

91 

99 

109 

IIS 

123 

13s 
141 

147 

The  Northern  Countriks  of  North  America 
The  Dominion  of  Canada  .  .  .      155 

Newfoundland  and  Greenland  .         .         -157 

The  Southern  Countries  of  North  America 
Mexico      .......     159 

Central  America  and  the  West  Indies  161 


South  America 

The  Land 165 

People,  Animals,  and  Plants      .         .         .  169 

Countries           ......  171 

Europe 

The  Continent 179 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland          .         .         .  185 

Germany            ......  190 

Other  Countries  on  the  North  and  Baltic 

Seas       .......  192 

France 197 

Spain  and  Portugal            ....  199 
Switzerland        .         .         .         .         .         .201 

Italy 203 

Austria,  Hungary,  and  Czechoslovakia      .  205 

The  Balkan  Countries       ....  208 

Eastern  Europe 2io 

Asia 

The  Continent  .  .  .  .  -213 

Countries  of  Southwestern  Asia         .         .  219 

Countries  of  Southi-astern  Asia           .          .  223 

The  Chinese  Republic        ....  227 

The  Empire  of  Japan         ....  231 

Asiatic  Russia 233 

Africa 

The  Continent 23 S 

Countries  of  Africa 241 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific 

Ocean 247 

Commerce  of  Our  Country      .        .        -253 

Appendlx 

A  Short  List  of  Useful  References     .         .  257 

Tables  of  Area,  Population,  etc.         .          .  259 

Index  ;iiul  Pronunciations           .          .         .  263 


HOW    PEOPLE    WORK    AND    LIVE 


1.  The  Study  of  Geography. — This  book 
tells  about  the  earth  on  which  we  live. 
It  tells  many  things  about  the  land  and 
water,  but  more  about  the  people  of 
the  earth.  In  studying  this  book  you 
w ill  learn  where  people  live  and  how  they 
live.  You  will  learn  also  about  the  things 
that  men  grow  in  the  fields,  dig  from 
mines,  catch  in  the  water,  or  make  in 
factories. 

We  have  many  kinds  of  food  to  eat, 
clothes  to  wear,  and  buildings  in  which 
to  live  and  work.  How  do  we  come  to 
have  such  things  ?  It  is  because  many 
people  have  worked  to  provide  them. 

Geography  is  the 
study  of  the  earth, 
and  of  the  way  men 
work  and  live. 

2.  The  Work  that 
People  Do. — Near- 
ly every  one  does 
some  kind  of  work. 
Farmers  grow  vege- 
tables, fruit,  and 
grain  for  food  ;  and 
they     raise     cattle, 


Fig.  3.     Factories  where  many  people  work 


hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry.  The  cows  give 
milk,  the  sheep  furnish  wool,  the  hens 
lay  eggs,  and  the  flesh  of  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  and  poultry  is  used  for  food. 
Miners  dig  coal,  iron,  and  other  minerals 
from  the  earth.  Workers  in  mills  and 
factories  make  cloth,  clothing,  shoes,  flour, 
machines,  and  many  other  useful  things. 

The  farmer  raises  more  vegetables  than 
he  can  eat.  The  miner  digs  more  coal 
than  he  needs  to  burn.  The  man  who 
works  in  a  factory  helps  to  make  more 
goods  than  all  the  factory  hands  together 
can  use. 

What  becomes  of  the  vegetables  that 
the  farmers  do  not 
eat,  and  of  the  coal 
that  the  miners  do 
not  burn .''  They 
are  sold  to  people 
who  do  other  kinds 
of  work. 

Most  workers  pro- 
duce more  than  they 
can  use.  What  they 
do  not  use  is  sold  to 
other  workers. 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


t:^.  -T       rvLicliiius  lisllI  in  making;  tlour 


I-"l'„.  Ii.      H.iuhii^;   -,11-, 11    lints  t.)  tlK-  Ku'liMV 


3.  Our  Food. — We  eat  our  meals  with- 
out thinking  very  much  about  our  food. 
Let  us  tind  out  where  some  of  it  comes 
from. 

Bread  is  made  from  flour  that  can 
be  bought  at  a  grocery.  But  where  does 
the  grocer  get  the  flour  .?  Most  of  it  is 
made  from  wheat. 

Wheat  is  planted  some  weeks  before 
winter  begins,  or  soon  after  winter  is 
over.  When  the  wheat  begins  to  grow,  it 
looks  like  a  coarse  grass.  In  the  summer 
the  stalks  grow  tall,  and  a  number  of 
seeds  form  a  head  at  the  top.  These  seeds 
are  the  grains  of  wheat 
from  which  flour  is 
made. 

When  the  wheat  is 
ready  to  harvest,  it  is 
cut  and  threshed,  and 
the  grain  is  sent  to 
flour  mills.  There  it  is 
crushed  between  heavy 
rollers  (Fig.  4),  and  the 
fine  white  flour  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  coarser 
parts  by  sifting. 

Sometimes  it  is  a 
long  distance  from  the 
fields  where  the  wheat 


Fig.  5.     Milkiiin  Willi  I  1' '  1  M^    machines.     Tl 
work  is  KiiK-rnlly  doiu-  by  liainl 


grows,  to  the  mills  where  it  is  made  into 
flour.  Even  after  the  flour  is  ready  for 
use,  it  must  be  shipped  from  the  mills  to 
difterent  parts  of  the  country,  where  it 
is  sold  in  the  stores.  Both  the  grain  and 
the  flour  must  be  handled  several  times, 
and  much  work  must  be  done  by  many 
people,  before  we  can  have  our  bread. 

In  order  that  we  may  have  butter, 
the  cows  on  many  farms  must  be  fed, 
cared  for,  and  milked  (Fig.  5).  The 
cream  is  separated  from  the  milk,  usu- 
ally by  machinery,  either  at  the  farm 
or  at  a  creamery  or  butter  factory.  The 
butter  is  made  from  the 
cream  and  is  sent  to 
stores  or  markets  to 
be  sold. 

Our  sugar  may  be 
made  from  beets  (Fig. 
6)  that  grow  in  one 
|)art  of  the  country,  or 
from  sugar  cane  that 
grows  in  another  part. 
The  juice  from  these 
plants  is  boiled  and 
purifled  to  produce  the 
white  sugar  that  is  used 
to  sweeten  tea  and 
K)llee. 


FOOD   AND   ClXXrHING 


*-5"- 


,*.*^*- 


Tea  is  made  fidm 
the  leaves  ut  a  small 
shrub  or  bush  that 
grows  in  a  distant 
part  of  the  world 
(Fig.  7).  Cortee  is 
made  from  the  seeds 
of  a  small  tree  grow- 
ing in  hot  countries. 
The  leaves  of  the  tea 
plant  and  the  berries 
of  the  coffee  plant, 
after  being  picked, 
must  be  carefully  pre- 
pared for  use.  Many 
people  work  upon 
them  before  they 
reach  our  tables. 

So  it  is  with  nearly  everything  we  eat. 

A  great  many  people  are  at  zvork  raising 
articles  of  food.  Some  of  these  can  be  used 
without  change.  Some  7nust  first  be  cleaned 
and  cooked,  and  some  must  be  prepared  ifi 
other  zvays. 

4.  Our  Clothing.  —  Some  of  our  clothing 
is  made  from  wool  clipped  from  sheep. 
Sheep  are  usually  raised  in  great  flocks 
(Fig.   8).       When    their  wool   has  grown 


.■i.;ii^ii».<y 


«•* 


Fig.  7.     Picking  tea 


long,  they  aresheared. 
The  wool  is  then  sent 
to  mills  where  it  is 
cleaned  and  made  in- 
to yarn,  from  which 
cloth  is  woven.  The 
cloth  is  finally  sold, 
to  be  cut  up  and 
made  into  clothing. 

Cotton  clothing  is 
made  from  the  lint, 
or  fiber,  from  the 
bolls  of  the  cotton 
plant.  This  plant  is 
grown  in  the  southern 
j)art  of  our  country. 
The  picture  (Fig.  9) 
shows  a  cotton  field 
with  many  little  white  bolls  of  cotton 
fibers.  After  the  cotton  has  been  picked, 
it  is  first  separated  from  the  seed  to  which 
it  clings.  It  is  then  spun  into  thread, 
and  woven  into  cloth,  and  much  of  the 
cloth  is  made  into  clothing.  Most  of  the 
spinning  and  weaving  is  now  done  in 
great  mills  (Fig.  3). 

Silk  is  made  from  fine  threads  spun  by 
silkworms.      The   worms   are   small    and 


»-■-    ^  ■■^t^sii 


L' .  .■>',  l)'P<iTttnint  of  AqtIcuUutc,  Frirat  Sirrtcc 

Fig.   8.     It  is  wool  from  sheep  like  these  that  is  used  in 
making  woolen  cloth 


U.  .b'.  Dt partincnl  of  Aoriculnnc 

Fig.  9.     Cotton  cloth  is  made  from  the  bolls  of  fiber 
borne  by  cotton  plants 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


must  be  very  carefully 
tended.  They  are  fed  up- 
on the  leaves  of  the  mul- 
berry tree.  When  they 
begin  spinning  the  thread, 
they  wind  it  around  their 
bodies,  covering  them- 
selves with  many  layers 
and  thus  forming  a  cocoon 
(Fig.  lo). 

In  making  silk  cloth  the 
fine  thread  that  forms  the 
cocoon  is  first  carefully 
unwound.  Several  such 
threads  are  then  twisted  together  to  form 
a  stronger  thread,  which  is  usually  colored 
before  it  is  finally  woven  into  cloth. 

Wool,  cotton,  and  silk  are  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  materials  used  in  mak- 
ing cloth  for  clothing.  Our  shoes  and 
most  of  our  gloves  are  made  from  the 
skins  of  animals.  Our  rubbers  are  made 
from  a  sticky  gum  obtained  from  trees 
that  grow  in  warm  coun- 
tries. 

People  do  not  all  wear 
the  same  kind  or  amount 
of  clothing.  In  hot 
countries  the  clothing 
is  thin  and  light,  and 
many  of  the  people  wear 
only  the  simplest  gar- 
ments. In  countries 
where  it  is  nearly  always 
very  cold  the  peo[)lc 
cover  their  bodies  with 
clothing  made  of  furs. 
In  countries  where  the 
summers  are  warm  and 
the  winters  cold  the 
summer  clothing  is  usu- 
ally light  and  the  winter 
clothing  much  heavier. 


Fig.  10.     Silkworms  and  cocoon 


The  making  of  our  cloth- 
ing requires  the  work  of 
many  people.  Some  of  the 
materials  used  come  from 
distant  lands. 

5.  Our  Shelter.— The 
buildings  in  which  we  live 
and  work  are  made  of 
wood,  metals,  brick,  stone, 
and  cement. 

There  are  many  different 
kinds  of  wood.  Some  kinds 
come  from  trees  that  grow 
in  our  own  country.  Other 
kinds  come  from  distant  parts  of  the 
world  and  are  brought  hundreds  of  miles 
over  land  and  sea.  The  trees  of  the  forest 
are  cut  down,  the  branches  trimmed  off, 
and  the  trunks  cut  into  logs  (Fig.  11). 
The  logs  are  then  taken  to  mills  where 
they  are  sawed  into  lumber. 

The  metals  are  found  in  ores  that  are 
dug  from  the  earth.  Before  they  can  be 
used  in  making  the  bars, 
beams,  pipes,  screws, 
nails,  and  other  metal 
articles  used  in  building, 
all  impurities  must  be 
removed.  This  is  usu- 
ally done  by  melting  the 
ore  in  great  furnaces. 
The  furnaces  are  ar- 
ranged so  that  at  the 
proper  time  the  pure 
metal  is  allowed  to  run 
out  and  the  impurities 
arc  left  behind.  The 
pure  metal  is  tlicn  made 
into  useful  or  beautiful 
articles. 

Most  bricks  are  made 
of  clay.  They  arc  first 
molded   in    small    boxes 


t'.  .S.  DrpI  of  A(/.,  Fari.sl  .Service 
Fig.  1 1 .     These  logs  will  be  sawed  into 
lumber  for  use  in  building 


SHELTER;    LIFE  IN   (JOLD  COUNTRIES 


of  the  proper  shape, 
and  then  burnt  until 
they  are  hard  (Fig. 
12).  At  hrst  the 
common  red  chiy 
brick  was  ahnost  the 
only  kind  that  was 
made ;  but  we  now 
have  bricks  of  many 
kinds  and  colors. 

Where  a  good 
building  stone  is 
found,  the  surface 
earth  is  cleared  away,  and  the  solid  rock 
is  cut  or  broken  into  blocks.  These  are 
then  shaped  and  sent  away  to  be  used 
by  the  builders. 

Cement  is  a  powder  made  from  a  burnt 
mixture  of  lime  and  clay.  It  is  generally 
used  in  making  concrete,  an  artificial  stone 
composed  of  cement,  water,  sand,  and 
gravel  or  broken  stone. 

In  making  buildings  men  use  the  trees  of 
the  forest,  and  the  metals,  clay,  and  rocks  of 
the  earth. 

6.  The  Work  of  People  in  Other  Lands. 
—  There  are  many,  many  millions  of  peo- 
ple in  the  world.  They  do  not  all  look  or 
dress  alike,  nor  do  they  all  speak  the  same 
language.  If  you  were 
to  travel  to  the  homes 
of  some  foreign  people 
and  watch  them  at 
their  work,  you  might 
think  that  even  their 
work  is  different  from 
anything  you  have 
ever  seen.  The  chief 
difference,  however,  is 
in  the  way  in  which 
they  do  the  work. 
There  is  little  differ- 
ence in  the  work  itself. 


Fig.  12.     Here  the  bricks  have  been  put  in  piles  so  that 
fires  may  be  built  under  them 


Fig.  13.      Making  Chinese  matting 


You  would  see 
some  of  them  cul- 
tivating the  soil,  or 
planting  fruit  trees 
or  vines,  or  raising 
grain  and  vege- 
tables. Some  would 
be  tending  cattle, 
sheep,  or  horses. 
Some  would  be  dig- 
ging valuable  min- 
erals from  the  earth, 
cutting  down  trees 
for  lumber,  or  catching  fish  for  food. 
Others  would  be  making  things  to  eat  or 
to  wear,  or  for  use  in  houses  (Fig.  13). 

Everywhere  people  are  at  zvork  so  that 
it  may  be  possible  to  have  good  food,  com- 
fortable clothing,  afid  safe  and  convenient 
places  in  which  to  live. 

7.  Life  in  Cold  Countries. — In  thecolder 
northern  parts  of  the  world  there  are  no 
trees,  and  much  of  the  time  the  ground  is 
covered  with  snow.  The  people  who  live 
the  farthest  north  are  Eskimos.  As  they 
have  no  railroads  and  no  steamships,  they 
cannot  get  their  food  and  clothing  from 
other  countries.  They  depend  upon  what 
they  find  in  their  own  country. 

For  their  food  they 
use  the  fish  that  they 
catch,  and  the  bears, 
seals,  and  other  ani- 
mals that  they  kill. 
Most  of  their  clothing 
is  made  of  the  skins  of 
the  animals  that  they 
kill  for  food.  This 
clothing  is  simple.  It 
usually  consists  of  two 
garments.  One  is  like 
a  coat  that  has  both 
gloves    and     a    hood. 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


The  other  is   a  combination  of  trousers 
and  boots. 

The  men  and  women  wear  clothing  so 
similar  that  they  look  very  much  alike. 
During  the  coldest  weather  an  Eskimo 
often  wears  two  suits.  One  is  worn  next 
to  the  body,  with  the  fur  inside,  while 
the  outer  suit  is  worn  with  the  fur  out- 
side. In  the  warmer  weather  only  one 
suit  is  used,  with  the  fur  on  the  outside. 

During  the  colder  part  of  the  year, 
when  the  ground  is  covered  deeply  with 
snow,  temporary  houses  are  built  of  snow 
blocks.  A  snow  tunnel  is  built  in  tront 
of  the  door,  and  in  going  into  the  house, 
or  out,  it  is  necessary  to  crawl  through 
this  tunnel.  The  tunnel  is  closed  by  a 
block  of  snow.  A  bank  of  snow  is  left 
along  one  side  of  the  room,  and  furs  are 
thrown  over  it.  This  is  used  both  for 
seats  and  for  beds. 
During  the  summer  tlic 
Eskimos  often  live  in 
tents  made  of  skins. 
Their  permanent  win- 
ter homes  are  huts 
made  of  stones  and 
sods,  or  of  wood  wluii 
it  can  be  secured. 

Eskimos    cook    tlicir 
food    over    a    lamp    in 


FiK-  IS-     The  polar  bear  furnislics  the  Eskimo 
with  botli  food  and  clothing 


w  hich  they  burn  the  fat,  or  blubber,  taken 
from  animals  they  have  killed.  When  for 
any  reason  the  meat  cannot  be  cooked,  it 
is  eaten  raw. 

The  Eskimos  of  the  farthest  north 
show  great  skill  in  making  the  tools  and 
other  things  that  they  need.  Their  ar- 
rows, spearheads,  fishhooks,  and  needles 
are  made  of  single  bones.  Their  bows, 
spear  handles,  and  the  framework  of  their 
sledges  and  canoes  are  made  of  driftwood 
picked  up  on  the  coast,  or  of  a  number  of 
bones  tied  together.  The  canoe  and 
sledge  frames  are  covered  with  skins. 

The  Eskimos  and  other  peoples  of  the 
far  north  train  dogs  to  draw  sledges  over 
the  frozen  and  snow-covered  land  (Fig.  14). 
In  some  cold  northern  regions  reindeer  also 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  Reindeer  may 
be  killed  for  food  and  their  skins  used  to 
make  tents  and  cloth- 
ing. Stripsof  skin  serve 
for  cords  and  ropes  and 
are  used  in  making 
harness. 

Lijc  in  cold  countries 
is  very  dijferent  from  that 
i)i  our  0:01.  I  (1 11  J.  The 
people  of  cold  countries 
work  very  hard  to  get 
enough  to  keep  them  alive. 


LIFE   IN    HOT  COUNTRIES 


Fig.    16.     A  cara\'an  on  the  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert 


8.  Life  in  Hot  Countries.  —  In  those 
parts  of  the  earth  where  the  weather  is 
hot  every  day  in  the  year,  the  people  need 
very  httle  clothinj^  except  to  protect  their 
bodies  from  the  burning  sun. 

Some  of  these  hot  regions  are  very 
rainy,  and  have  a  great  variety  and 
abundance  of  food  phints.  Bananas  and 
other  fruits,  with  the  vegetables  that  are 
sometimes  planted,  furnish  plenty  of  food. 
All  that  the  people  need  to  do  is  to  pick 
the  fruit  or  gather  the  vegetables.  Little 
meat  is  needed,  but  there  is  usually  plenty 
of  game.  When  this  fails,  sheep,  goats, 
and  cattle  can  be  kept  without  much 
trouble.  There  is  always  enough  food 
for  them,  and  they  do  -not  need  shelter. 

Even  the  houses  in  such  countries  are 
very  simple.  The  framework  is  usually 
of  poles,  and  is  covered  with  grass.  Many 
houses  are  built  in  trees,  for  protection 
against  enemies. 

In  other  hot  countries  there  is  little 
rain.  Generally  such  regions  are  barren 
wastes,  or  deserts,  with  a  few  stunted 
plants  scattered  over  large  areas.  Life  in 
the  desert  is  very  different  from  that  in 
rainy  regions.  But  here  also  the  people 
must  have  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 

One  of  the  great  deserts  of  the  world  is 
the  Sahara  in  the  northern  part  of  Africa 


(Fig.  i6).  The  desert  is  bordered  by  re- 
gions where  there  is  enough  moisture  for 
a  little  grass  to  grow.  In  such  regions 
the  people  keep  cattle,  sheep,  camels,  and 
goats.  These  they  drive  from  one  feeding 
place  to  another.  The  meat  and  milk 
from  these  animals  furnish  most  of  the 
food  of  the  people.  Much  of  their 
clothing  is  made  of  wool. 

For  shelter  they  use  tents,  which  are 
easily  put  up  and  taken  down.  It  is  very 
important  to  have  this  kind  of  shelter,  for 
when  the  flocks  have  eaten  the  grass  of  one 
pasture  they  must  be  driven  to  another, 
and  the  people  move  with  them.  During 
the  day  the  tents  furnish  protection  from 
the  sun.  During  the  night,  when  it  grows 
very  cool  on  the  desert,  they  are  needed 
for  warmth. 

Some  of  the  wandering  people  of  the 
Sahara,  as  well  as  of  other  deserts,  carry 
on  trade  with  countries  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  desert.  In  this  way  they  are  able 
to  get  food  and  clothing  from  other  parts 
of  the  world.  In  crossing  the  desert  they 
make  use  of  the  camel  (Fig.  i6),  an  animal 
that  can  live  for  many  days  without  drink- 
ing. Usually  several  traders,  each  hav- 
ing a  number  of  camels,  travel  together, 
forming  a  carava?!.  They  do  this  to  protect 
themselves  and  their  goods  from  robbers. 


8 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK   AND   LIVE 


In  some  deserts  there  are  a  few  springs, 
with  fields  of  grass  and  groves  of  date 
palms  around  them.  Such  fertile  areas 
are  called  oases  (Fig.  17).  The  grass  fur- 
nishes pasture  for  cattle,  sheep,  camels, 
and  goats.  A  little  wheat  is  raised,  and 
on  the  date  palms  grow  great  bunches  of 
dates.  The  principal  caravan  routes 
across  the  desert  lead  from  one  oasis  to 
another.  Both  men  and  animals  can  thus 
get  food  and  water  for  the  journey. 

As  it  is  so  hot,  the 
people  of  the  desert 
wear  loose  garments. 
They  also  wind  a  strip 
of  cloth  about  the  head 
to  protect  themselves 
from  the  heat  and  the 
blowing  sand  of  the 
desert  (Fig.  16). 

Life  in  the  rainy 
parts  of  hot  countries 
is  easy.  The  people 
need  only  the  simplest 
clothing  and  shelter, 
and  they  can  get  food 
without  much  work. 

In  desert  regions  most  of  the  people  live 
a  wandering  life  and  depend  upon  their 
herds  for  food  and  clothing. 

9.  Life  in  Temperate  Regions. — Those 
parts  of  the  world  which  are  neither  very 
cold  nor  very  hot  are  called  the  temperate 
regions.  In  most  of  them  the  summers 
are  warm  and  the  winters  cool.  During 
the  warmer  part  of  the  year  crops  are 
grown.  Mining  and  manufacturing  are 
carried  on  the  year  round. 

The  clothing  for  summer  is  light,  and 
that  for  winter  usu;ill\  niiuli  warmer. 
Where  the  winters  arc  cold,  houses  and 
factories  are  built  so  they  can  be  heated 
during  the  winter. 


Fig.  17.     Date  palms  in  an  oasis  of  the  Sahara 


It  is  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the  world 
that  most  of  the  people  live.  The  great- 
est countries  of  the  world,  including  our 
own,  are  in  the  temperate  regions.  It  is 
to  the  study  of  these  countries,  and  the  life 
and  industries  of  their  inhabitants,  that 
the  larger  part  of  this  book  is  devoted. 

Review  of  Sections  i  to  9.  —  i.  What  do  we 

learn  about  in  geography  ? 

2.    What  are  some  of  the  things  that  farmers 

raise  .^  3.  What  does  the  miner  do?  4.  What 
is  done  with  the  food  raised 
by  the  farmer,  beyond  his 
own  needs  .? 

5.  How  does  the  wheat 
that  the  farmer  raises  finally 
become     bread  t     6.    From 
what      is      butter      made  ? 
7.   From  what  two  plants  is 
sugar       made .?        8.   From 
what  is  tea  made  ?     Coffee  ? 
9.  Where      does      wool, 
from    which    some   of   our 
clothing     is     made,     come 
from .?        Cotton .?        Silk  ? 
10.    From     what    are    our 
shoes    and     most    of     our 
gloves    made  ?      Our    rub- 
bers .'     II.  Why  do  not  all 
people  wear  the  same  kind 
of  clothing  .'' 
12.  Of  what  are  buildings  made.?      13.  Where 
does  the  wood  come  from  .'      14.  Where  do  the 
metals  come  from  ?    i  v  1  low  are  they  prepared  for 
use.?      16.   How  are  bricks  and  stones  obtained? 
17.  In   what  way  does  the  work  of  people  in 
other  lands  differ  from  that  in  our  own  country? 
iS.  Where    do    some    of    the     Kskimos    live? 
19.   Upon  what  do  the   Eskimos  of  the  farthest 
north  depend  for  food  ?     20.  Out  of  what  do  they 
make  their  clothing?     Shelter?      Fools,  sleds,  and 
boats?      21.  How  docs  tlieir  summer  shelter  differ 
from  their  winter  homes  ? 

22.  What  kinds  of  food  do  the  people  have 
who  live  in  hot,  moist  countries?  23.  What 
sort  of  iiouscs  do  they  build  ?  24.  How  do  the 
desert  people  live  ?  25.  What  sort  of  homes  do 
they  have  ?  What  kind  of  clothing  ?  26.  What 
are  oases  ?     27.   What  are  caravans  ? 

28.   In  what  parts  of  the  world  are  the  greatest 


countries 


? 


AGRICULTURE 


1 


Fig.   18.     A  rich  agricultural  region  of  small  farms  and  well-cultivated  fields 


©  Underwood  A  Undt-ruood 


AGRICULTURE 

10.  The  Greatest  Industry. — We  have 
learned  that  most  people  work,  or,  as  we 
say,  they  are  engaged  in  some  industry. 
The  most  important  of  all  industries  is 
farming,  or  agriculture,  which  is  carried  on 
in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

In  some  farming  regions  the  houses  of 
the  people  are  close  to  one  another,  the 
land  is  divided  into  small  farms,  and  much 
of  the  work  is  done  by  hand  labor.  Here, 
as  in  village  gardens,  many  kinds  of  vege- 
tables and  other  crops  are  grown. 

In  other  farming  regions  there  are  fewer 
people,  the  farms  and  the  fields  are  large, 
and  big  machines  are  used  in  doing  a  great 
deal  of  the  work.  Such  farms  are  devoted 
almost  entirely  to  a  few^  crops.  This  kind 
of  farming  is  seen  in  the  great  wheat  farms 
and  cotton  plantations  of  our  country. 

In  most  farming  regions,  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  and  horses  are  raised.  This  part  of 
the  farming  industry  is  called  stock  raising. 

Agriculture  includes  the  growing  of  crops 
and  the  raising  of  domestic  animals.  It  is 
the  most  important  of  the  great  industries. 


11.  The  Importance  of  Moisture  and 
Warmth. — A  list  of  the  useful  plants 
raised  in  different  parts  of  the  world  would 
be  very  long. 

In  such  a  list  we  should  find  some  kinds 
of  grass  and  grain  that  will  thrive  in 
regions  of  scanty  rainfall ;  while  other 
kinds,  such  as  rice,  require  much  moisture. 

The  list  would  include  many  plants  that 
grow  only  where  it  is  warm,  and  others, 
such  as  oats  and  barley,  that  will  thrive 
in  cool  regions. 

Cotton  needs  a  long  growing  season, 
while  many  garden  vegetables  mature  in 
a  short  time. 

Some  plants  need  more  warmth,  or  more 
tnoisture,  or  a  longer  growing  season  than 
is  necessary  for  other  plants. 

12.  Importance  of  the  SoiL — The  soil, 
which  is  often  called  dirt,  is  so  common 
that  we  do  not  usually  think  of  it  as  being 
important.  From  it,  however,  nearly  all 
plants  get  a  part  of  their  food.  This 
plant  food  is  dissolved  in  the  water  of  the 
soil  and  is  taken  up  into  the  plant  through 
its  roots.  Many  different  plants  are 
eaten  by  men.     Animals  also  eat  plants; 


10 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


Fig.    19.     Stonework 
heating  and  cooling. 


and  the  flesh  of  many 
animals  is  used  for  food 
by  men. 

The  soil  supplies  neces- 
sary food  for  plants,  and 
through  them  for  animals 
and  men. 

13.  How  Soils  are 
Formed. — When  you  ex- 
amine carefully  a  pinch 
of  soil,  you  will  nearly 
always  find  that  some 
particles  are  larger  and 
harder  than  the  others. 
If  you  pick  these  out  and  wash  them,  you 
will  notice  that  they  look  like  small  pieces 
of  stone  or  rock.  That  is  \\  hat  they  are. 
Usually  the  soil  contains  vegetable  matter 
composed  of  bits  of  the  rotten  leaves, 
stems,  and  roots  of  trees  or  other  plants. 
In  some  soils  there  is  very  little  vegetable 
matter,  and  in  (^ther  soils  there  is  a  large 
amount. 

Soils  are  usually  formed  of  fine  pieces 
of  rock  and  decayed  vegetable  matter  mixed 
together.  Such  soils  are  better  for  growing 
plants  than  soil  made  up  of  rock  particles 
only. 

14.  How  Rocks  are  Broken  up  to  Form 
Soil. — There  are  several  ways  in  which 
rocks  are  broken  up  to  form  soil. 


broken  by  sudden 
Notice  the  pieces 


^       ^% 


Fig.   20.     DiaKrani  of  soil  formation 


When  a  bare  rock  sur- 
face is  heated  by  the  sun 
during  the  day,  and  cools 
quickly  at  night,  little 
pieces  often  chip  off  and 
help  to  form  a  thin  layer 
ot  soil.  Such  chipping 
may  be  seen  when  the 
stone  walls  or  columns  of 
a  building  are  heated  by  a 
fire  and  then  suddenly 
cooled  by  the  stream  of 
cold  water  from  the  fire 
engine  (Fig.  19). 
Some  rocks,  such  as  sandstone,  are 
composed  of  small,  hard  particles  held 
together  by  a  natural  cement.  This 
cement  may  be  dissolved  by  water,  and 
the  rock  will  then  crumble  into  small 
pieces. 

Most  rocks  have  tiny  spaces  between 
the  particles  of  which  they  are  made,  and 
water  gets  into  these  spaces.  Put  a  -dry 
piece  of  sandstone,  or  a  dry  red  clay 
brick,  into  water  and  see  how  much  it 
will  take  up.  Water  tliat  gets  into  the 
tiny  spaces,  or  into  the  larger  cracks,  and 
then  freezes,  will  break  off  pieces  of  the 
rock. 

The  roots  of  trees,  and  even  of  such 
small  plants  as  mosses,  find  their  way 
into  small  openings  in  rocks,  and  then 
grow  until  the  rock  is  split  apart  or  pieces 
are  broken  off. 

Rock  may  be  broken  up  even  when  al- 
ready covered  with  a  surface  of  soil.  It 
is  sometimes  ])ossible  to  see  where  this 
has  happened.  It  may  be  seen  where  a 
cellar  has  been  dug  or  where  a  road  has 
hvvn  cut  through  a  hill.  At  the  surface 
there  is  a  layer  of  fint'  soil  (Fig.  20). 
Underneath  this  the  stone  is  broken 
very   small    and    mixed   with    soil.     Still 


AGRICULTURE 


II 


lower  there  are  larger  pieces  of  rock, 
and  finally  solid  rock.  Usually  the 
rock  breaks  first  into  large  pieces,  and 
these  into  smaller  and  still  smaller  pieces, 
until  they  are  finally  changed  into  fine 
dirt. 

In  all  streams  where  tiie  water  Hows 
rapidly,  as  it  does  in  the  stream  pictured 
on  this  page  (Fig.  21),  the  smaller  stones 
in  its  bed  are  tumbled  about  and  rubbed 
against  one  another. 


This  process  wears 
tlie  stone  away,  as 
you  may  prove  by 
rubbing  two  wet 
stones  together  until 
you  see  that  a  fine 
mud  is  formed. 

At  times  of  flood 
the  stones  may  be 
bumped  together  so 
hard  that  small  bits 
are  chipped  off,  or 
they  are  broken  into 
pieces.  These  smaller  pieces  are  also 
rubbed  together  and  worn  away. 

Look  at  the  stones  in  the  bed  of  some 
swift  stream  near  your  home.  You  will 
see  that  many  stones,  of  all  sizes,  are 
smooth  and  round.  They  have  been  worn 
into  this  shape  by  being  rubbed  and 
bumped  together  by  the  moving  water, 
especially  at  times  when  the  stream  is 
larger  and  swifter  than  usual. 

What  becomes  of  the  fine  rock  particles 
that  are  worn  away  from  the  stones  ? 
They  may  be  carried  along  in  the  water 
for  a  great  distance,  but  finally,  when  the 
water  moves  very  slowly,  they  will  settle 
and  help  to  build  up  the  bed  or  banks 
of  the  stream ;  or  they  may  even  be 
swept  into  some  lake  or  ocean,  and  come 
to  rest  on  the  bottom  near  the  shore. 


Soil  is  formed  chicHy  from  broken  rock. 
Rocks  may  be  broken  by  quick  changes 
in  temperature^  by  the  dissolving  of  natural 
cement,  by  water  free7.ing  in  them,  by  the 
grozvth  of  the  roots  of  plants,  and  by  the 
bumping  together  of  stones  in  the  moving 
zvater  of  streams. 

15.  The  Soils  of  Flood  Plains  and 
Deltas. — When  soil  has  been  formed  by 
the  breaking  up  of  rocks,  some  of  it  stays 

where  it  was  made, 
and  some  does  not. 
There  are  several 
ways  in  which  it 
may  be  carried  to 
some  other  place. 
The  most  common 
and  important  of 
these  is  by  running 
water. 

Soil  made  by  the 
rubbing  and  bump- 
ing together  of  the 
stones  in  a  stream 
is  only  a  small  part  of  the  soil  that 
streams  carry  away  from  the  places 
where  it  is  formed. 

Put  a  little  soil  into  a  bottle  of  water. 
Cork  the  bottle  and  shake  it.  You  will 
notice  that  the  water  becomes  muddy. 
Let  the  bottle  stand  for  a  while,  and  the 
water  will  become  clearer  and  clearer 
as  the  particles  of  soil  settle  to  the  bottom. 
The  largest  pieces  settle  first,  and  the 
finest  soil  will  be  on  top.  If  the  bottle  is 
again  shaken,  the  water  once  more  be- 
comes muddy.  As  long  as  the  water  is  in 
motion,  it  remains  muddy.  This  will 
help  us  to  understand  how  streams  carry 
soil  particles  from  one  place  to  another. 

During  a  heavy  rainstorm  the  rain 
washes  the  fine  soil  from  the  surface  of 
roads  and  fields,  and  fills  the  gutters  and 


f    S  GeolO\jiC'tl  Sumy 

Fig.   21.     Rounded  stones  in  the  bed  of  a  rapid  stream 


12 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


Fig.  22.     The  level  land  along  the  river  is  part  of  a.  flood  plain,  and  is  a  rich  farming  country 


roadside  ditches  with  muddy  water.  Tiny 
streams  of  muddy  water  are  formed  in  the 
fields.  These  run  together  and  form  hirger 
and  larger  streams  until  they  flow  into 
some  brook  or  river.  Even  these  large 
streams  are  filled  with  muddy  water. 
This  means  that  they  are  all  carrying 
much  fine  soil  along  with  them.  Some- 
times a  stream  flowing  in  a  broad  valley 
is  so  swollen  that  it  overflows  the  border- 
ing lowlands.  When  the  flood  water  dis- 
appears, it  leaves  a  layer  of  fine  soil  spread 
over  tlie  land.  This  is  called  sediment. 
In  time  such  overflows  build  up  a  strij)  ot 
level  land,  called  a  flood  plain  (Fig.  22). 

Whenever  a  river  moves  slowly  and 
particles  settle  to  the  bottom,  the  coarser 
particles  settle  first,  as  they  did  in  the 
bottle  when  it  was  no  longer  shaken. 
The  finest  material 
will  be  carried  the 
farthest,  much  of  it 
by  streams  that  do 
not  appear  to  be 
moving  swiftly. 

A  part  of  the  fin- 
est soil  is  c;irri((l  hv 
some  rivers  until 
they  enter  a  large 
body  of  still  water. 
The  water  liom  the 


Fig.  23. 


rivers  then  moves  so  slowly  that  even  the 
finest  material  is  dropped,  thus  building 
up  the  bottom  near  the  shore.  In  time  a 
low  plain  is  built  up,  like  a  flood  plain. 
As  it  increases  in  size,  the  river  divides 
and  flows  through  it  in  several  channels. 
Such  a  plain  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  is 
called  a  delta  (Fig.  23). 

Where  a  stream  is  rapid  it  is  able  to 
carry  the  soil  swept  iyito  it  by  rains  and 
by  smaller  streams.  As  it  becomes  less 
rapid  in  its  lower  course  it  finally  drops 
the  soil,  thus  forming  flood  plains  and 
deltas. 

16.  The  Making  of  a  Valley. — What 
happens  where  streams  are  breaking  up 
and  wearing  away  the  stones  in  their 
beds  .?  What  would  happen  if  you  should 
take  a  stick,   draw  a  long  mark  in  the 

dirt,  and  then  scrape 
and  scrape  along 
that  mark .''  You 
would  dig  a  little 
ditch.  As  the  ditch 
deepened  it  would 
also  widen,  and  the 
more  ol  the  dirt 
you  scraped  away, 
the  deeper  and  the 
wider  your  ditch 
would  be. 


U .  S.  (iioloi/lcul  Survri/ 

The  delta  of  a  small  stream 


AGRICULTURE 


13 


Fig.  24.     The  length  and  height  of  the  bridge  show 
that  this  stream  has  cut  a  deep  valley 


Fig.  26.     A  divide  in  a  hilly  district.     Notice  also  the 
low  divides  between  the  little  streams 


That  is  what  the  streams  are  doing. 
They  are  cutting  big  ditches,  which  we 
call  valleys  (Fig.  24).  The  more  the 
streams  cut,  the  deeper  the  valleys  be- 
come. Of  course  this  work  goes  on  very 
slowly  and  we  see  but  little  of  it. 

A  valley  widens  as  the  banks  of  the 
stream  are  worn  away  by  the  water, 
and  as  the  surface  soil  is  washed  into  the 
stream  by  the  rains.  The  stream  may 
be  bordered  by  flood  plains  that  are 
nearly  flat  (Fig.  22),  or  the  valley  walls 
may  be  very  steep  (Fig.  25). 

The  elevation 
that  separates 
streams  flowing 
in  one  direction 
from  those  flow- 
ing in  an  oppo- 
site direction  is  a 
divide  (Fig.  26). 
A  divide  may  be 
the  sharp  ridge  of 
a  hill  or  moun- 
tain, or  it  may  be 
an  irregular  line 
winding  across 
nearly  level  land. 

Valleys  are  cut 
by  the  action  of 
running  water. 


17.  Thin  Soils  and  Deep  Soils. — Much 
of  the  soil  formed  on  the  steep  valley 
slopes  is  easily  swept  away  by  rain  and 
running  water.  The  steepest  slopes  have 
no  soil  at  all  (Fig.  25).  Where  the  slopes 
are  not  very  steep  the  soil  is  usually  coarse 
and  thin.  In  the  lower  parts  of  the  valley, 
where  the  slopes  are  very  gentle,  and  in 
the  flood  plains  and  deltas,  the  soil  is  fine 
and  deep. 

On  the  great  plains  of  the  world  much 
of  the  soil  remains  where  it  was  formed. 
The  land  is  nearly  level,  and  the  rain  that 

falls  on  it  cannot 
form  into  rapid 
streams,  as  in 
countries  where 
there  are  hills 
and  valleys.  But 
fine  particles  may 
be  carried  by  the 
wind. 

On  steep  slopes 
the  soils  are  thin- 
ner and  coarser 
than  on  gentle 
slopes.  The  deep- 
est and  finest  soils 
are  on  plains, 
especially  flood 
plains  and  deltas. 


14 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


Fig.  27.     A  valley  with  fine,  rich  soil  and  large  crops 


i8.  Fertile  Soils. — You  have  already 
learned  that  plants  get  some  of  their  food 
from  the  soil  (Sec.  12).  Soils  that  contain 
much  plant  food  are  called  fertile.  The 
plant  food  in  the  finer  soils  is  more  easily 
dissolved  than  that  in  coarse  soils,  and 
the  finer  soils  are  usually  more  fertile. 
Each  plant  takes  from  the  soil  the  food 
that  it  needs. 

Rocks  are  not  all  made  of  the  same 
material.  Different  rocks,  therefore,  con- 
tain difi^erent  kinds  of  plant  food.  For 
this  reason  some  plants  will  grow  well 
on  the  soil  formed  from  one  kind  of  rock, 
and  not  at  all  well  on  the  soil  formed 
from  another  kind  of  rock.  The  best  soil 
usually  contains  a  mixture  of  rock  ma- 
terials, as  well  as  some  vegetable  matter. 
The  fine  soils  of  river  flood  plains  and 
deltas  are  niixtiircs  of  tiiis  kind.  The 
soil  has  come  trom  many  i)arts  of  the 
river  basin  and  is  made  up  of  particles  of 
many  different  kinds  of  rock.  i)\  course 
the  largest  crops  are  raised  on  the  most 
fertile  soils. 

The  richest  farming  regions  are  regions 
where  the  soils  are  deep  and  fine  and  con- 
tain many  different  kinds  of  rock  particles. 


19.  How  to  Keep 
Soils  Fertile.  ~  All 
growing  plants  take 
some  food  from  the 
soil ;  therefore  when 
vegetables  are  gath- 
ered from  the  garden, 
or  grain  from  the 
fields,  the  soil  loses  a 
part  of  the  food  that 
is  needed  by  such 
plants.  The  growing 
of  the  same  crop  year 
after  year  robs  the 
soil  of  one  kind  of 
plant  food.  If  this  is  done  for  a  long 
time,  so  much  of  this  particular  kind  of 
plant  food  will  be  taken  away  that  the 
soil  will  no  longer  grow  that  crop  well. 
Sometimes,  also,  plants  leave  poisons  in 
the  soil  that  for  a  time  destroy  its  fertility 
for  certain  crops. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  plant  food 
taken  from  the  soil  is  not  the  same  for  all 
jilants.  Because  of  this,  many  farmers 
plant  different  crops  each  year.  This 
is  called  the  rotation  of  crops.  Even 
when  this  care  is  taken,  the  soil  may 
need  fertilizers,  such  as  phosphate  rock 
or  barnyard  manure.  These  restore  to 
the  soil  plant  food  taken  out  by  crops. 

Soils  may  be  kept  fertile  by  the  rotation 
of  crops  and  by  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

20.  Farming  in  Densely  Settled  Coun- 
tries. —In  densely  settled  countries  there 
are  many  people  to  be  fed.  The  land  is 
valuable  and  the  farms  are  small.  The 
ground  is  fertilized  and  the  crops  are 
watered  and  tended  with  the  greatest 
care,  so  they  will  yield  the  largest  return 
possible  for  each  acre. 

In  some  countries  where  there  is  not 
enough    level    ground    to   be   cultivated, 


AGRICULTURE 


IS 


the  people  have  built  terraces  on  the  sides  pulled   up  or  cut  down.     The  soil  must 

of  hills  and  mountains  (I'ig.  28).     in  some  be  loosened  around  the  growing   plants, 

regions  they  have  carried  soil  from   the  as  this  helps  to  keep  the  ground  moist, 

plains  and  valleys  and   have  built  stone  If  the  weather  is  too  hot  and  dry  while 

wails  to  hold    it   in  position.     In  a    few  the   plants   are  still  growing,  they  must 

densely    settled    countries,    people    have  be  watered.     Care  must  also  be  taken  to 

even  built  rafts  on  the  rivers  and  covered  kill  injurious  insects. 

them  with  soil  for  their  gardens.  In   villages   many  people  supply  them- 

Where  there  are  many  people  much  food  selves  with  jresh  vegetables  from  their  own 

is  needed,  and  the  soil  is  carefully  used.  gardens. 

21.  Village    Gardens. — In    large    cities  22.   Truck    Farming. — In    cities,    fresh 

the  land  is  so  valuable  that  it  is  used  only  vegetables   are   bought    at   the   stores  or 

for  streets,  buildings,  and  a  few  parks  and  markets.     But  where  does  the  storekeeper 


playgrounds.  In  villages  the  land  is  not 
so  valuable.  The  houses  are  farther  apart, 
and  near  each  house  there  is  usually  a 
garden.  It  may  not  be  large  enough  to 
raise  all  that  is  needed  by  the  family,  but 
if  carefully  cultivated  it  furnishes  many 
fresh  vegetables  and  small  fruits. 

When  the  right  season  of  the  year  comes, 
the  soil  is  prepared  for  the  seed  and  the 


get  them  .?  A  little  trip  to  the  country 
will  help  us  to  answer  this  question. 
Near  the  city  we  shall  find  a  large  number 
of  truck  farms,  as  they  are  called,  and 
many  gardeners  busy  raising  vegetables 
and  fruits  for  the  city  markets.  A  large 
part  of  the  work  is  done  by  hand. 

Many  of  the  truck  farmers  bring  their 
vegetables  to  the  city  in  wagons,  and  either 


plants.     It  is  first  broken  w  ith  the  plow     sell  them  on  the  streets  or  stop  at  some 

or   spade,   and    then 

made    finer    with    a 

harrow    or    a    hand 

rake.      If    the     soil 

lacks   the    necessar}- 

plant      food,      some 

fertilizer    is    usually 

mixed  with  it. 

As  soon  as  the 
ground  is  ready,  it 
is  marked  off  into 
regular  spaces.  The 
seeds  and  plants  are 
then  put  into  the 
ground  far  enough 
apart  for  them  to 
grow  well.  When 
they  begin  to  grow, 
they  must  be  cared 
for.     Weeds  must  be 


Fig.  28.     Terraces  on  a  hill  beside  the  river  Rhine 


i6 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


Fig.   29.     Truck  farmers  selling  produce  in  a  city  market 


f^msswK^. 


1 

i 


Fig.  31.     A  grain  drill  pi  ,ntir 


public  market,  where  people  may  go  and 
buy  them  (Fig.  29).  But  some  of  the 
truck  farms  are  a  long  distance  away.  To 
bring  the  products  of  these  farms  quickly 
to  the  city,  there  are  fast  trains,  of  special 
cars,  ventilated  and  supplied  with  ice,  so 
that  the  fruits  and  vegetables  will  not  spoil. 

I\la7iy  of  the  fresh  vegetables  used  by  city 
residents  are  raised  on  truck  farms  where 
rmich  hand  labor  is  necessary. 

23.  Farming  with  Big  Machines. — Among 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  farms  in  the 
world  are  those  in  the  great  wheat-growing 
regions  of  our  own  country.  Much  of  the 
land  is  nearly  level.  The  soil  is  fine,  deep, 
and  rich.  There  is  the  right  amount  of 
heat  and  moisture  for  growing  wheat. 
Most  of  the  work  is  done  by  machinery. 
The   plowing  is  done  with   a  gang  plow. 


which  turns  several  furrows  at  a  time 
(Fig.  30).  The  grain  is  put  into  the 
ground  with  drills  (Fig.  31).  In  cutting 
or  harvesting  the  grain  two  kinds  of  ma- 
chines are  used. 

The  machine  shown  at  the  left  in 
Figure  33  is  the  reaper  and  binder.  This 
cuts  the  grain,  gathers  and  ties  it  into 
bundles,  and  drops  a  number  of  them 
in  one  place.  The  bundles  are  afterwards 
taken  to  a  thresher,  where  the  grain  is 
separated  from  the  straw  (Fig.  32). 

The  other  kind  of  harvesting  machine, 
called  the  header,  cuts  the  wheat  heads 
from  the  standing  straw,  and  threshes 
and  sacks  the  wheat  as  the  machine 
moves  along. 

On  many  large  farms  machinery  is  used 
to  do  most  of  the  work. 


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i8 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK   AND   LIVE 


Review  of  Sections  lo  to  23. — i.  What  is 
agriculture?  2.  Name  two  things  that  are  neces- 
sar\-  tor  the  growth  of  plants.  3.  What  do  plants 
get  from  the  soil  r  How-  r  4.  How  do  men  and 
animals  get  food  from  the  soil  ? 

5.  Of  what  is  soil  made?  6.  Where  does  the 
decajed  vegetable  matter  come  from  ?  7.  In 
what  ways  ma}'  rocks  be  broken  up  ?  8.  What 
happens  to  the  stones  in  the  bed  of  a  switt 
stream  ? 

9.  What  makes  w  ater  muddy  ?  10.  How  do 
rainstorms  make  a  stream  muddy?  11.  What 
finally  becomes  of  the  fine  soil  that  the  muddy 
streams  are  carr\ing  ?  12.  What  is  a  flood  plain  ? 
13.  What  is  a  delta?  14.  Where  and  how  are 
deltas  formed  ? 

15.  How  are  valleys  formed  ?  16.  How  do 
valleys  grow  wider?      17.  What  is  a  divide? 

18.  Where     do     we     find     fine,     deep     soils  ? 

19.  Where     are     the     soils     coarse     and     thin  ? 

20.  What  kind  of  soil  is  called  fertile?     21.   How- 
may  soils  be  kept  fertile  ? 

22.  Wh}'  do  people  in  some  countries  build 
terraces  on  mountain  slopes?  23.  What  use  is 
made  of  gardens  in  villages?  24.  What  are  truck 
farms?  25.  What  is  done  with  the  vegetables 
and  fruits  raised  on  these  farms  ? 

26.  In  the  great  wheat-growing  regions  ot  our 
couiitrv,  how  is  the  plowing  done?  How  is 
the  planting  done?  The  harvesting?  The 
threshing  ? 

DAIRYING  AND  GRAZING 

24.  Dairying  in  Hilly  Countries. — As  we 
have  learned,  the  richest  and  best  ap;ri- 
cultural  soils  are  found  in  the  tlood  plains 
and  deltas  of  rivers. 
These  soils  are  fine 
and  easily  worked. 
The  plant  food  in 
them  is  quickly  dis- 
solved. The  soil 
particles  have  come 
from  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  rock  in 
many  parts  of  the 
valley  and  furnish 
food  for  a  ^reat  vari- 
ety of  plants.   Other 


soils,  almost  as  good,  are  found  in  level 
regions  and  on  gentle  slopes  where  they 
were  formed. 

On  the  upper  slopes  of  hills  the  soil  is 
usually  thin,  and  crops  cannot  be  success- 
fully cultivated.  Such  places,  if  not  given 
up  to  forests,  are  generall}-  used  as  pas- 
ture lands  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses. 
In  many  parts  of  the  world  the  people  who 
live  in  hilly  lands  keep  cows  for  milk  and 
spend  much  of  their  time  in  taking  care 
of  their  herds.  This  kind  of  work  is 
called  dairying.  Figure  34  shows  a  herd 
of  cows  on  a  dairy  farm. 

So  great  is  the  demand  for  fresh  milk 
in  cities  that  many  farmers  near  them 
engage  in  the  dairying  industry.  A  very 
large  city  needs  a  great  quantity  of  milk ; 
and  part  of  the  supply  is  brought  by  fast 
trains  (Fig.  35)  from  the  more  distant 
dairying  districts  of  hilly  regions.  In 
dairying  districts  from  which  the  milk  is 
not  sent  to  cities,  it  is  condensed  and 
canned,  or  made  into  butter  and  cheese. 

The  dairy  farmer  was  at  one  time  care- 
ful to  keep  no  more  cattle  than  his  pastures 
would  feed.  Now  he  sometimes  finds  it 
profitable  to  buy  feed  and  keep  a  larger 
number.  The  chief  product  of  a  dairy 
farm  is  milk,  although  some  of  the  cattle 

are  sold  for  beef. 

Large  crops  can- 
not be  grown  on  the 
thin  soils  in  hilly  re- 
gions;  but  such  land 
makes  good  pasture 
for  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  cattle  are  kept 
mainly  for  their 
milk.  The  sheep 
are  raised  mainly 
for  their  wool,  and 
for  mutton. 


DAIRYING  AND  GRAZING 


»9 


25.  Mountains  and  Mountain  Pastures. —  when  there  are  several  ranges  lying  side 

Figure  34,  on  the  opposite  page,  shows  a  by    side.      When    people    have    found    it 

dairying  district   in   a  land   of  hills  and  necessary  to  cross  a  mountain  range,  they 

valleys.     The  valleys  are  broad  and  open,  have    searched    out    the    low    places,    or 

the  slopes  are  gentle,  and  the   hills   not  passes;  and  through  some  of  the  passes 

very  high.     A  man  can  easily  climb  from  wagon  roads  or  railroads  have  been  built. 


the  bottom  of  the 
deepest  valley  to  the 
top  of  the  highest  hill 
in  less  than  an  hour. 

Some  hills  are 
much  lower  than  the 
ones  shown  in  this 
picture,  while  others 
are  much  higher. 
The  highest  ones  are 
usually  called  not 
hills,  but  mountains. 
There  is  little  differ- 
ence between  high 
hills  and  low  moun- 
tains. Some  moun- 
tains are  so  high  that 
their  tops,  or  peaks, 
are  often  hidden  by 
the  clouds. 

A  few  mountains 
rise  above  the  sur- 
rounding    plain     as 


V .  S.  Geolofficfil  .s'ur/'Ci/ 
Fig.  36.     One  of  the  beautiful  snow-covered  moun- 
tain peaks  in  the  western  part  of  our  country 


Every  one  who 
climbs  a  high  moun- 
tain notices  that  it 
is  cooler  at  the  top 
than  at  the  bottom. 
The  higher  the  moun- 
tain, the  greater  the 
difference.  On  the 
upper  slopes  of  the 
highest  mountains, 
even  in  warm  coun- 
tries, snow  falls  in- 
steadofrain.  During 
the  winter  this  snow 
covering  may  reach  a 
long  way  down  the 
mountain  side.  As 
summer  comes  on, 
the  snows  on  the 
lower  slopes  melt, 
but  the  upper  slopes 
are  covered  with 
snow  throughout  the 


single  peaks.     Most  mountains,  however,  year  (Fig.  36).     In  these  regions  of  per- 

stretch  across  the  country  for  a  long  dis-  petual    snow   nothing   grows.      Fields   of 

tance  and  form  a  mountain  range.     Such  snow  and  ice,  and  bare,  wind-swept  rocks, 

mountains  are  difificult  to  cross,  especially  are  all  that  can  be  seen. 


20 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


In  mountain   regions   some  slopes   are  are  driven  slowly  down    the   mountains, 

almost  vertical.     They  form  great  cliffs  feeding  as  they  go.     Winter  finds  them 

of   bare   rock.      Many   of  the   cliffs    are  once    more    in    the    sheds   and    barns   at 

where  rivers  have  cut  deep,  narrow  val-  home. 

leys   called    canyons    (Fig.    25).     On    the  The  cattle  and  sheep  are  kept  out  of 

steeper    slopes    of    hills    and    mountains  some  fields,  and  the  grass  there  is  cut  and 

most  of  the  soil  has  been  carried  away  by  carried  home  to  be  fed  as  hay  during  the 

the    wind,    rain,    streams,    and    melting  winter.      On   the    mountain  dairy  farms 

snow.     In   the  valleys,   however,  on   the  much  butter  and  cheese  are  made, 

gentler    slopes,    and     in    hollows    among  Excellent  pasture  lands  are  found  on  the 

the    rocks,  some    soil    is   found.     During  higher  slopes  and  in  the  valleys  of  some 

the    summer    these    places    are    covered  mountain   districts.     Here   the   people   are 
with  grass  and  make 


excellent  pastures. 

In  some  countries 
the  mountain  people 
keep  herds  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  During 
the  winter  the  ani- 
mals are  kept  under 
shelter.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  summer 
they  are  turned  our 
to  pasture.  As  the 
snow  melts,  the 
herds  are  driven  up 
the  innimiain  side  to 
the  higher  pastures. 
When  it  begins  to 
grow  cold  again,  they 


Fig.  38.     Stockyards  wlirrc  i::itllc  ,iic  siiil  to  Ik  siiUi 
to  the  meal  packers 


engaged  mainly  in  the 
dairying  industry. 

26.  Grazing  on 
Great  Plains.  —  In 
some  parts  of  the 
world  are  great  plains 
where  the  soil  is  rich 
enough  to  be  culti- 
vated, but  where 
there  is  not  enough 
rain  for  the  growth  of 
(.•roj)s.  In  such  re- 
gions, where  there  is 
enough  rain  lor  grass, 
the  |)eoi)le  keep  great 
herds  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses.  These 
are   grazing   regions. 


DAIRYING  AND  GRAZING 


21 


The  herds  roam  over 
the  country  in  search 
of  grass  ami  u.itcr. 
They  are  carelully 
watched  and  cared 
for  by  men  on  horse- 
back. In  the  sum- 
mer time  these  men 
often  sleep  out  of 
doors,  wrapped  in 
blankets. 

In  grazing  coun- 
tries, cattle  are  raised  for  their  meat 
and  for  tiieir  hides.  When  they  are  old 
enough,  they  are  fattened  at  some  farm 
or  ranch  and  rlu-n  st-nt  hy  rail  to  a  city 
where  there  are  stockyards  (Fig.  38). 
After  they  have  been  killed,  the  meat 
is  cut  up  (Fig.  39)  and  sent  in  cars  or  in 
ships  (Fig.  40)  to  distant  places  for  sale. 
Every  part  of  the  animal  is  used.  The 
hide  is  made  into  leather,  some  of  the  bones 
are  made  into  buttons  and  knife  handles, 
and  other  bones,  with  meat  scraps,  are 
made  into  fertilizer.  Even  the  hoofs  are 
used  in  making  gelatin  and  glue. 

Formerly,  in  some  parts  of  the  world 
where  sheep  were  not 
needed  for  food,  they 
were  raised  chiefly 
for  their  wool  and 
skins,  and  the  flesh 
was  of  little  value. 
That  was  because 
the  wool  and  the 
skins  could  be  sent 
long  distances  with- 
out spoiling,  but 
the  meat  could  not. 
Now,  by  the  use  of 
refrigerator  cars  and 
ships,  it  is  possible  to 
freeze  or  chill  meat 


Fig.  39.     Cut  iiiij;  up  siilLS  of  beef  for  the  markets 


— either  mutton  or 
beef — and  keep  it 
fresh  while  it  is  sent 
to  distant  markets. 

Great  plains  that 
are  too  dry  for  most 
crops  are  used  as 
grazing  regions.  Here 
the  cattle  are  raised 
chiefly  for  their  meat 
and  hides,  and  the 
sheep  for  their  wool, 

meat,  and  skins.     Meat  may  be  chilled  and 

thus  kept  fresh  for  a  long  time. 

Review  of  Sections  24  to  26. — i.  What  is  dairy- 
ing ?  2.  Where  are  there  many  dairy  farms? 
3.   What   is  done  with   the   milk  .^ 

4.  W  hat  are  moimtains  .?  5.  Why  does  snow 
often  fall  instead  of  rain  on  high  mountains  ? 
Where  is  there  perpetual  snow  ?  6.  Why  do 
we  not  expect  to  find  much  soil  on  the  higher 
mountain  slopes .?  7.  Where  on  mountains  is 
there  some  soil,  and  what  grows  there  ?  8.  For 
what  are  these  fields  used  ? 

9.    What    kind    of  land    is    a   grazing    region .'' 

10.  How    is    the    grazing    industry    carried    on? 

11.  For  what  are  the  cattle  raised  ?  12.  Where 
are  the  cattle  killed,  and  what  becomes  of  the  meat  ? 
The  hides  ?  The  bones  ?  13.  How  is  fresh  meat 
carried   long  distances  without  spoiling  ? 


LUMBERING 

27.  Forests  of  the 
Early  Days. — Many 
years  ago,  when 
settlers  first  came  to 
our  country,  they 
found  most  of  the 
land  covered  with 
trees.  The  forests 
stretched  over  the 
hills  and  valleys  and 
high  up  the  moun- 
tain sides.  As  much 
food     was     needed. 


22 


HOW    PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


L.s.  D,ii:.  <//.!,  ./v.*;  .51 
Fig.  41.     It  was  in  log  houses  like  this  that  the 
early  settlers  lived 


the  early  settlers  began  at  once  to  clear 
land  for  cultivation.  Trees  were  cut 
down  and  used  for  building  log  houses 
(Fig.  41),  split  into  rails  for  fences,  or 
burned  to  get  them  out  of  the  way. 

As  more  people  came  to  our  country, 
the  forests  were  cut  down  very  raj)idly. 
Sawmills  were  built  to  cut  the  logs  into 
lumber.  Forest  fires  also  destroyed  many 
trees  (Fig.  42).  Nearly  all  the  forests  on 
the  river  flood  plains  and  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  hills  have  now  been  cut  down. 

At  o?ie  time  there  were  very  large  forests  in 
our  country.  In  the  early  days  many  of 
the  trees  were  destroyed  because  they  were 
in  the  way.  Later,  the  forests 
were  cut  dozvn  for  timber. 

28.  Forests  of  the  Pres- 
ent Day. — Only  a  few  large 
forests  are  still  standing  in 
our  country.  Some  of  them 
are  at  a  long  distance  from 
the  great  lumber  markets, 
and  in  regions  where  it  is 
difficult  and  expensive  to  get 
out  the  trees.  For  this 
reason  lumber  is  constantly 
increasing  in  price. 

The  forests  are  now  more 


carefully  protected  and  cared  for  than 
formerly.  Our  government  has  set  aside 
some  large  tracts  of  land  for  the  growth 
of  forests.  Such  forest  tracts  are  called 
National  Forests.  Men  are  employed  to 
watch  them  to  prevent  fires  and  the  steal- 
ing of  timber,  and  to  plant  young  trees 
where  the  old  ones  have  been  cut  off^. 

Lumber  is  still  largely  used  in  building, 
except  in  the  parts  of  large  cities  where 
there  is  much  danger  of  fire.  There 
buildings  must  now  be  constructed  of 
stone,  brick,  steel,  and  concrete,  but  lum- 
ber is  used  for  finishing  and  for  furniture. 
Much  wood  is  used  also  for  making  paper. 

There  are  at  the  present  time  few  great 
forests  in  otir  country,  and  lumber  has 
become  very  valuable. 

29.  From  the  Forest  to  the  SawmilL — 
You  have  already  learned  how  trees  are 
cut  into  logs  in  the  forest  (Sec.  5).  In 
the  northern  part  of  our  country  this 
logging  is  usually  done  in  the  winter, 
after  the  snow  has  fallen.  It  is  then 
easy  to  haul  the  logs  on  big  sleds  over 
the  icy  roads.  Many  of  the  logs  are 
hauled  to  streams,  where  they  remain 
until  the  ice  and  snow  melt.  They  are 
then  floated  downstream  to  mills. 


I 

I 


'.-■^im.jawii. 


Fir.  42.     A  forest  lire.     Much  vakuiblc  limber  has  been  ruined  in  this  way 


LUMBERING 


23 


In  the  mountains  lumbermen  often  shoot 
the  logs  down  sHdes  built  on  the  moun- 
tain side,  and  they  sometimes  use  wire 
cables  pulled  by  engines  to  draw  the  logs 
to  the  level  ground.  Logging  trains 
(Fig.  43)  then  carry  them  to  sawmills. 
At  the  mills  (Fig.  44)  the  logs  are  sawed 
into  various  kinds  of  lumber,  to  be  used 
for  buildings,  furniture,  and  other  things. 

The  trees  are  cut  into  logs  in  the  forest  and 
sent  to  the  sazcmills  to  be  sazved  into  lumber. 

30.  Forests  and  Floods. — Forests  on 
hillsides  and  mountain  slopes  help  to  pre- 
vent floods.  The  rain  that  falls  in  forest 
regions  does  not  run  off  the  surface  or 
collect  in  streams  so  rapidly  as  it  does  in 
regions    that    are   under   cultivation.      A 


Fig.  44.     A  sawmill.     The  band  saw  runs  around  two  wheels 


part  of  the  rain  in  each  storm  is  used  by 
the  plants,  some  of  it  runs  slowly  down  the 
tree  trunks,  and  much  is  caught  in  little 
hollows  or  held  back  by  the  dead  leaves 
and  mosses  on  the  ground.  The  snow 
that  falls  on  forest-covered  slopes  is  so 
sheltered  by  the  trees  that  it  melts  slowly 
when  the  weather  becomes  warmer. 

In  hilly  regions  where  forests  have 
been  cut  away,  the  water  from  rains  and 
melting  snow  may  run  rapidly  over  the 
fields,  carry  away  the  surface  soil,  and  cut 
gullies.  It  may  also  gather  quickly  into  the 
streams  and  cause  floods,  resulting  in  the 
destruction  of  property  and  the  loss  of  life. 

Forests  help  to  prevent  floods.  When  for- 
ests have  been  cut  in  hilly  countries,  the  soil 
may  be  washed  away. 

Review    of    Sections    27    to    30. — 

1.  Where  were  there  forests  when  the 
first    settlers    came    to    this    country  ? 

2.  Why    were    the    trees    cut    down  ? 

3.  Which  forests  were  destroyed  first.' 
4.  What  forests  are  left.''     5.  What 

has  our  government  done  to  help  save 
the  forests .?  6.  Where  have  people 
stopped  using  wood  for  buildings  ? 
7.   Why  has  lumber  become  valuable  ? 

8.  What  is  done  to  the  trees  in  the 
forest  after  the)'  have  been  cut  down  ? 
9.  How  do  the  logs  reach  the  sawmills  ? 

10.  What  disasters  sometimes  hap- 
pen in  countries  where  the  forests 
have  been  cut  away  .'' 


24 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


that    the   builders   want.      Most   of  the 
QUARRYING  AND   MINING  ^^.^^^^  j^  ^^^.^^  1^^  machinery. 

31.  Useful  Materials  from  the  Ground.  From  quarries  men  get  many  kinds  of 
— The  soil    made   up   of   broken   rock   is     building  stone. 

valuable  (Sec.  12).  But  many  of  the  33.  Coal  and  the  Ores. — The  work  of 
rocks  that  are  not  yet  broken  up  are  also  getting  coal  and  the  ores  of  iron,  copper, 
useful.  Some  of  the  finer  and  harder  kinds  gold,  silver,  and  the  other  metals  from  the 
of  rock  are  used  in  building.  One  of  these  ground  is  mining.  Some  gold,  silver,  and 
is  slate,  which  splits  into  thin  sheets  and     copper  are  found  nearly  pure,  that  is,  not 

is  used  on  the  roofs     mixed     with     rock. 

of  buildings  and  for      ^!^^s^?-^^^^^~^'     ■- -r^  "Sl^^T^'''  ^       Generally,   however, 

school     slates     and      r^^F -    ■  ' '^.       these  and  the  other 

blackboards.     Gran-      Ll^r3 'dH  I"/"        metals  are  contained 

ite   and    marble   are       b^  i^  ,  ^  in  ores,  and  need  to 

much  used  in  build-      ^r'^~im^S->rZ  ._  be    separated     from 

ing  where  a  durable  ■'^^^iSC^^'^^^^  ™^'^    ^'^    other    im- 

stone      is      needed.       \'"  ^^ ""'  'itt  purities.     The  sepa- 

Some     large     build-        .^^1t(jf^%<.  a         ***-  rating     is     done    in 

ings    are     made    of      '^' '^^^^^     "i  -M>t4  ^         ^       furnaces  called  jw^'/i- 

white    marble,    but       ^^J^  ax  -'^  ^'■^'  ^^^^^''"h  are  built 

thc'best  white  marble  rM^^i        '•  i         ^^  jp(PI?5^  Jli      "^^'"  mining  regions, 

is  used    for  statues.       ^-^'^^Bjj^i-i.S. .    - '        .^fe  "*"       ''J  Our   most    impor- 

Large    quantities    of      mBP^^'c''^ ,«r3ik.v'  _ .^Wi  _       tant  mineral  is  coal, 

sand,  broken   stone.  Fig.  45.   a  granite  quany  which  is  much  used 

and  cement  (Sec.  5)  as  a  fuel.    It  is  found 

are  used  in  making  concrete  buildings,  in  many  different  places,  and  usually  be- 
bridges,  and  roads.  Many  rocks,  called  tween  layers  of  rock.  In  some  places 
ores,  contain  metals  such  as  iron  copper,  both  rock  and  coal  layers  are  bent  and 
lead,  gold,  and  silver.  broken,  and   the  coal   may  show  on  the 

The  rocks  of  the  earth  supply  building  surface  of  the  ground.  In  other  places 
stone  and  the  ores  of  valuable  metals.  the   layers    are  nearly  level,   as  may  be 

32.  Quarrying  the  Stone. — The  work  seen  along  the  sides  of  river  valleys  where 
of  getting  stone,  other  than  ores,  out  of  the  streams  have  cut  through  both  rock 
the  ground,  is  called  quarrying.    There  are     and  coal. 

many  kinds  of  building  stone.     Most  of         Most  of  the  valuable  ores,  such  as  iron, 

the  quarries  that  are  worked  are  near  the  copper,  gold,  and  silver,  are  buried  among 

places  where  the  stone  is  to  be  used.     Stone  the   rocks  of  the  earth.     Some  ores  are 

is  so  heavy  and  its  transportation  is  so  ex-  found  in  the  cracks  of  rocks  and  show  only 

pensive  that  only  the  best  kinds  are  sent  a  little  at  the  surface.     In  order  to  reach 

long  distances.     Figure  45  shows  a  quarry  the  more  valuable  ores  it  is  usually  neces- 

from  which  great  blocksof  beautiful  granite  sary  to  dig  decj)  Iioles,  or  shafts ;  and  from 

are  taken.     These  blocks  arc  lifted  to  the  each    shaft    tin-    miners    dig    tunnels,    or 

surface,  where  they  are  cut  into  tin'  loinis  drifts,  into  the  masses  of  ore. 


QUARRYING  AND   MINING 


25 


Fig.  46.     An  electric  engine  hauling  a  train  of  loaded  coal  cars  from  a  nunc 


Much  ore  is  found  in  mountainous  coun- 
tries, because  there  the  rocks  have  been 
bent  and  broken,  and  the  cracks  in  the 
rocks  have  been  filled  with  minerals. 
Where  these  rocks  are  not  covered  with 
soil,  the  ores  niaj'  easily  be  found.  In 
plains,  the  rocks  contain  less  ore,  and  are 
hidden  by  the  deep  soil. 

In  one  part  of  our  own  country  there 
are  large  masses  of  iron  ore  lying  near  the 
surface.  The  ore  crumbles  to  pieces 
easily.  It  is  so  easy  to  handle  that  it  is 
taken  up  in  scoops  worked  by  machinery 
(Fig.  48),  and  loaded  at  once  on  cars. 


Frovi  mines  men  get  coal  and  the  ores  oj 
metals.  In  some  places  these  viinerals  show 
at  the  surface,  but  generally  it  is  necessary 
to  dig  shafts  and  tunnels  to  reach  them. 

34.  Mines  in  the  Higher  Mountains. — 
Many  deposits  of  ore  have  been  found 
among  mountains  where  mines  have  never 
been  opened  because  it  would  cost  too 
much  to  get  the  ore  to  a  smelter.  Only 
the  most  valuable  of  the  mines  in  the 
higher  mountains  can  be  worked.  In 
some  places  it  is  impossible  to  reach  the 
mine  except  by  a  dangerous  narrow  path, 
winding    up   the    side   of   the    mountain. 


Fig.  47.     In  the  interior  of  a  coal  mine 


Fig.  48.     Mining  iron  ore  in  an  open  pit  ^in  Minnesota) 


26 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


Sure-footed  donkeys,  or  burros,  may  be  We  step  into  the  man  car,  and  it  begins 
used  to  bring  down  the  ore  and  to  carrj^  to  descend.  Deeper  and  deeper  into  the 
the  food,  tools,  and  other  supphes  for  the  earth  it  goes. 
miners.  Where  there  are 
many  mines,  or  where  they 


are  very  valuable,  engineers 
have  found  ways  of  building 
railroads  into  the  mining 
region. 

The  ores  in  high  mountains 
are  difficult  to  reach.  Many 
mineral  deposits  have  been 
found  that  are  not  rich  enough 
to  pay  for  working. 

35.  A  Visit  to  a  Copper 
Mine. — A  trip  into  a  mine 
is  very  interesting.  Let  us 
visit  one  of  the  deep  copper 


Cj  Detroit  Publisliing  Co 

Fig.  49.     A  man  car 


Much  of  the  shaft  is  dark, 
but  as  we  drop  lower  and 
lower  we  may  get  glimpses  of 
lights  as  we  go  b}^  the  ends 
ot  drifts  that  lead  away 
into  the  earth.  Finally, 
after  passing  several  of 
these  openings,  the  car 
stops,  and  we  step  out. 
In  front  of  us  is  a  long 
drift.  Along  its  floor  runs 
a  narrow  railway  track,  and 
in  the  distance  we  can  hear 
the  miners  at  their  work. 

We  follow  our  guide,  who 
points  out  to  us  the  copper 


mines  in  the  northern  part  of  our  country,  ore  in  the  rock,  and  we  watch  the  miners 
Wear  your  old  clothes  and,  if  possible,  at  work.  In  order  to  loosen  the  ore  it 
rubber  boots  and  a  rubber  coat  and  hat.  is  necessary  to  drill  holes  into  the  rock. 
The  water  in  the  ground  makes  its  way  These  holes  are  filled  with  dynamite,  and 
into  the  mine,  and  it  sometimes  drips  from  when  this  is  exploded,  several  tons  of  ore 
the  roofs  and  sides  of  the  tunnels.  fall  to  the  floor  of  the  drift.     Usually  the 

Over  the  top  of  the  sliafr  is  a  house  con-     ore  is  so  broken  up  that  it  is  only  neces- 

taining  the  machin-     sary  to  shovel  it  into 

cry  used  in  lowering  ^l^  fv^^^iiiMPR'      ^^^^  which  stand  on 

the  miners  to   their  ^j  ^^fZ^f^^^        ^^^^  track.     When  a 

work   and  in  lifting  '*^'r-'  l<'^0r^''**       §  •       '"'^'^    '^    filled,    it    is 

out    the    ore.      The  '\  .Jii#i|flP^      1 1  •  *  *  moved  away,  and  an 

miners   are   lowered       IteMPi*  m  '''^■"""'^^^^^^^B      empty  one  takes  its 

Buckets  called  skips  1   .;    "      Loadinp;  copper  on  a  lake  steamer  lifted    tO    tllC   SUtfaCC 

are   used    in    taking  and     sent     to     the 

out  the  ore.     A  bucket   of  ore   is   lifted  smelter.     There  the   ore    is   crushed,  the 

very  quickly,  but  the  machinery  can  be  impurities  removed,  and   the  copper  run 

controlled  easily,  and  the   man  car  does  into  bars.      Figure  50  shows  some  of  the 

not  make  the  trip  so  rapidly.  copper  as  it  comes  from  the  smelter. 


THE  WATERS  OF  THE   EARTH,  AND  THE   FISHING  INDUSTRY         27 


In  busy  times  the  mining  goes  on  both 
day  and  night.  As  soon  as  one  shift  of 
men  stop  work  another  shift  come  to  take 
their  places. 

The  copper  mine  that  we  are  visiting  is 
lighted  by  the  himps  and  candles  of  the 
miners,  but  many  mines  are  now  lighted 
by  electricity. 

We  notice  with  surprise  that  there  is 
fresh  air  even  in  the  deepest  part  of  the 
mine.  Our  guide  tells  us  that  it  is  forced 
into  the  mine  through  pipes  by  powerful 
machinery.  The  wa- 
ter that  drops  from 
the  walls  and  from 
the  roofs  of  the  tun- 
nels runs  into  a  hole 
orwell  and  is  pumped 
to  the  surface. 

Perhaps  it  will  be 
possible  for  your 
teacher  to  take  you 
on  a  trip  to  see  a 
mine  or  a  quarry 
near  your  home. 
Frequent  excursions 
should  be  taken  to  study  geography  out 
of  doors.  In  this  way  you  will  learn 
many  interesting  things  about  the  plains, 
valleys,  and  streams,  and  about  the  work 
that  men  are  doing. 

Review  of  Sections  31  to  35. — i.  For  what  are 
rocks  useful  ?  2.  For  what  is  slate  used  ?  Mar- 
ble.?     Granite.''     3.  What  are  ores  ? 

4.  What  is  quarr3'ing  .^  5.  How  is  the  stone 
taken  out  ?  6.  What  is  done  with  it  before  it  is 
sent  to  the  builder?  7.  Why  do  builders  gener- 
ally use  stone  from  quarries  near  at  hand  ? 

8.  What  is  mining  ?  9.  What  metals  are  some- 
times found  nearly  pure  ?  10.  What  is  done  with 
ores?  II.  WTiy  are  mines  more  easily  found  in 
mountainous  countries  than  in  plains  ? 

12.  How  are  mmes  supplied  with  fresh  air? 
13.  How  are  the  mines  kept  from  filling  with 
water?  14.  How  are  miners  lowered  to  their 
work  ?     15.  What  are  shafts  ?     Drifts  ? 


THE  WATERS  OF  THE  EARTH,  AND 
THE  FISHING  INDUSTRY 

36.  How  Rivers  Begin. — Some  streams 
flow  out  of  swamps  or  lakes.  Others  have 
their  sources  among  the  melting  snows 
and  ice  of  high  mountains.  Most  streams, 
however,  start  in  a  difi^erent  way. 

The  next  time  it  rains  watch  what  be- 
comes of  the  water  that  falls  to  the  ground. 
You  "will  notice  that  a  part  of  it  begins  to 
gather   at   once   into   little  hollows.     As 

soon  as  these  hol- 
lows are  full  the 
water  overflows  and 
forms  tiny  streams 
that  run  over  the 
surface.  Most  of 
them  dry  up  soon 
after  the  storm  is 
over. 

You  cannot  see, 
however,  what  be- 
comes of  all  of  the 
rain  water,  for  some 
of  it  sinks  into 
the  ground.  This  is  called  ground  water. 
It  makes  its  way  through  the  soil,  and 
furnishes  the  supply  of  water  needed  by 
growing  plants.  At  some  distance  under 
the  surface  the  ground  is  soaked  with  this 
water.  That  is  why  a  deep  hole  will  fill 
with  ground  water  and  become  a  well.  In 
many  places,  too,  in  valleys  and  low  spots, 
the  ground  water  of  the  higher  land  comes 
out  to  the  surface,  forming  a  spring. 

Many  streams  have  their  sources  in 
springs.  These  spring-fed  streams  may 
be  at  first  so  small  that  they  are  almost 
lost  in  the  grass  which  covers  their  banks. 
They  grow  larger  as  the  waters  of  other 
springs  flow  into  them,  and  as  they  are 
joined  by  other  streams  (Fig.  51). 


Where  one  stream  is  joined  by  another 


28 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK   AND   LIVE 


The  beginning  of  a 
stream  is  called  its 
source.  Streams  may 
have  their  sources  m 
the  melting  snow  and 
ice  of  mountains,  in 
swamps  or  lakes,  or  in 
springs. 

37.  Rivers  and 
River  Systems. — The 
rivers  of  a  country, 
seen  from  a  high  place, 
look  like  wide  and  nar- 
row ribbons  of  silver 
winding  among  the  hills  and  through  the 
fields.  In  each  group  of  streams  there  is 
one  stream  that  is  larger  and  usually 
longer  than  all  the  others.  This  is  the 
main  stream.  The  streams  that  flow  into 
it  are  called  its  tributaries.  The  main 
stream,  with  all  its  tributaries,  is  called  a 
river  system.  The  land  drained  by  a  river 
system  is  a  river  basin. 

In  Figure  52  point  out  a  tributary. 
Lay  thin  paper  over  the  figure,  and  draw 
your  pencil  around  the  river  basin.  Fig- 
ure 52  shows  the  Mississippi  river  system, 
the  largest  river  system  in  our  country 
and  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  The 
river  basin  is  very  large,  and  a  wide  strip 
from  north  to  south  through  its  central 
part  is  a  region  of  great  plains.  The  main 
stream  has  its  source  in  a  small  lake  on  the 
plain  marked  s ;  but  many  of  the  tribu- 
taries have  their  sources  among  the  moun- 
tains which  border  the  great  plain  on  the 
east  and  on  the  west.  Here  the  slopes  are 
steep  and  the  rivers  rapid.  Even  small 
streams  have  cut  deep,  narrow  valleys  into 
the  rock  (Sec.  16). 

At  the  bottom  of  such  a  narrow  gorge, 
or  canyon,  the  stream  often  i)lunges  over 
a    rocky    ledge    in    a   waterfall  (Fig.  53). 


Fig.  52.     The  Mississippi  river  system 


Where  several  little 
falls  follow  close  to- 
gether, they  form  a 
cascade.  In  places 
where  there  are  no 
tails  but  where  the 
water  moves  very 
swiftly  down  an  in- 
cline, it  forms  rapids. 
Several  of  the  trib- 
utaries of  the  Mis- 
sissippi system  are 
themselves  large  and 
important  rivers  with 
many  smaller  tributaries  flowing  into 
them.  Find  the  longest  tributary  of 
the  Mississippi  and  trace  it  back  to 
its  source.  It  rises  among  the  moun- 
tains, and  during  the  first  part  of  its 
journey  it  flows  swiftly  through  narrow, 
steep-sided  gorges.  As  one  tributary 
after  another  joins  it,  the  river  grows 
rapidly  larger.  Its  valley  becomes  more 
open.  The  hills  along  its  banks  are 
lower  and-  have  gentler  slopes.  Finally 
it  leaves  the  highland  region  altogether 
and  flows  across  great  plains  toward  the 
main  stream. 

Several  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Missis- 
sippi arc  like  this  longest  one.  One  after 
another  they  join  the  main  stream,  which 
finally  becomes  one  of  the  largest  rivers 
of  the  world.  In  its  lower  course  it  is 
bordered  by  broad  flood  plains  built  of 
the  sediiiunr  that  has  been  brought  to  it 
by  its  tributaries  (Sec.  15).  It  carries 
much  of  the  finer  material  until  its  waters 
flow  into  the  (lulf  of  Mexico.  Here,  at 
its  mouth,  c\cn  the  finer  sediments  are 
deposited,  and  of  these  a  large  delta  has 
been  formed  (Sec.  15).  Across  the  delta 
the  river  finds  its  way  to  the  (Julf  through 
several  mouths.     Not  all  rivers  build  such 


Fig.  53.     Great  Falls  and  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone  River 

29 


30 


HOW  PEOPLE   WORK  AND  LIVE 


deltas.  Some  widen  at  their  mouths  and 
end  in  great  bays,  where  their  waters  are 
lost  in  those  of  the  ocean. 

A  journey  through  the  region  drained 


see  if  3^ou  can  find  a  main  stream  and  a 
tributary  ;  a  waterfall,  cascade,  or  rapid  ; 
a  bay,  a  delta. 

Mmiy  rivers  flow  at  first  swiftly  in  nar- 


by  the  Mississippi  xWtv  system  would  row  valleys ;  are  made  larger  by  tributaries ; 
show  many  of  the  industries  about  which  flow  slowly  through  flood  plains  in  their 
you  have  been  studying.  On  farms  and  lower  courses;  and  end  i^i  a  bay  or  in 
plantations  you  would  see  great  fields  of  several  mouths  crossing  a  delta. 
wheat,  corn,  and  cotton.  Among  the  hills  38.  Fishing  in  Rivers. — Agriculture, 
and  mountains  and  on  the  plains  you  including  dairying  and  grazing,  is  the 
would  find  many  dairy  farms  and  large  most  important  of  all  industries  because 
numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep.  In  some  we  depend  upon  it  for  so  much  of  our 
parts  of  this  drainage  basin  large  forests  food.  Another  industry,  however,  from 
are  still  standing.  You  could  follow  the  which  we  get  a  part  of  our  food,  h  fishing. 
trees  from  the  rime  they  are  cut  until  they  In  the  clear,  cold  waters  of  many 
are  sawed  into  lumber.  Mining  also  is  brooks  and  mountain  streams  are  brook 
carried  on  in  this  river  basin.  In  dif-  trout  and  other  fine  fish.  They  are  difti- 
ferent  parts  ot  it  there  are  large  mines  of  cult  to  catch,  and  men  w  ho  love  the  sport 
coal,  iron,  copper,  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  often  travel  long  distances  to  have  a  day 
zinc.  of  fishing  (Fig.  54). 

In  visiting  the  streams  near  your  home         In  many  of  the  larger  rivers  there  are, 

at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  great 
numbers  of  fish. 
During  a  part  of  the 
year  the  fish  are 
protected  by  law, 
but  at  other  times 
they  may  be  caught. 
Nets,  tra|is,  and  fish 
wheels  are  used.  In 
tlie  rivers  in  the 
ndrthwcstcrn  part  of 
our  country  there 
are  at  times  so  many 
salmon  that  they 
crowd  one  another 
in  the  water.  Large- 
numbers  of  these 
lisli  are  canned  and 
sent  to  distant  parts 
of  the  world  to  be 
sold. 


FiK.   S.). 


FishipK  in  the  clear,  cold  woU-rs  of  a  mountain  stream 


TllK   WAIERS   OF   THE    EAKIll.    AND    THE    FISHING   INDUSFRY 


31 


Fig.   55.     Where  the  ocean  beats  against  the  edge  of  the  land 


Fish  are  tised  as  food.  The  most  impor- 
tant food  fish  taken  i?i  rivers  is  the  salmon. 

39.  Swamps,  Lakes,  and  Ponds.  — 
There  are  many  springs  in  upland  pastures 
and  in  forests.  Where  the  land  is  nearly 
level  or  has  such  a  gentle  slope  tliat  the 
water  does  not  easily  run  ofif,  the  springs 
make  the  ground  wet  and  thus  form  a 
szvamp.  Swamps  are  found  also  in  poorly 
drained  lowlands. 

Where  there  is  a  basin  or  hollow  in  the 
land  the  water  from  springs  may  collect 
and  form  a  lake  or  pond. 

A  lake  or  pond  may  also  be  formed  by 
the  waters  of  a  river  held  back  by  some 
natural  or  artificial  dam.  The  stream 
that  flows  into  a  lake  and  forms  its  inlet 
is  constantly  bringing  in  sediment  to  fill 
the  hollow  in  which  the  lake  rests.  The 
stream  that  flows  from  the  lake  and  forms 
its  outlet  is  as  steadily  cutting  its  valley 
deeper,  and  in  time  may  cut  dee[)  enough 
to  drain  the  lake  entirely. 

In  many  lakes  fish  abound,  and  on  large 
lakes  fishing  is  an  important  industry. 

Some  swamps  and  lakes  are  formed  by 
springs  on  nearly  level  land.  Others  are 
made  by  natural  or  artificial  dams. 


40.  The  Ocean. — What  becomes  of  the 
water  that  flows  day  after  day  in  the 
small  streams  and  in  the  great  rivers  of 
the  world  .?  Most  of  it  finally  reaches  the 
ocean.  The  ocean  is  a  very  large  body  of 
salt  water  that  has  gathered  in  the  great 
hollows  and  low  places  of  the  earth.  The 
land  upon  which  people  live  is  the  part  of 
the  earth  that  is  not  covered  by  the  waters 
of  the  ocean.  If  you  should  start  from 
home  and  travel  straight  ahead  in  any 
direction,  you  would  finally  reach  the  edge 
of  the  land.  Beyond  it  you  would  see 
the  ocean  (Fig.  55). 

The  ocean  covers  nearly  three  fourths 
of  the  earth's  surface.  From  the  land  you 
can  get  no  idea  of  its  size.  You  could 
get  a  much  better  idea  by  traveling  over 
the  ocean.  Even  the  fast  steamers  that 
make  trips  between  our  country  and  the 
nearer  countries  on  the  other  side  of  the 
ocean,  are  out  of  sight  of  land  for  several 
days.  On  longer  trips  to  more  distant 
countries  the  sailors  may  not  see  land  for 
several  weeks. 

The  land  is  bordered  on  every  side  by  the 
ocean.  Ships  crossing  the  ocean  may  be  out 
of  sight  of  land  for  days  or  weeks  at  a  tiyne. 


32 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


41.  Waves  and  Currents. — When  the 
wind  is  blowing,  the  surface  of  the  ocean 
is  nearly  always  rising  and  falling  in  waves. 
Along  the  shore  the  \\ater  that  forms  the 
waves  moves  forward  a  little.  It  tfows 
forsvard  and  back  on  the  low  sandy 
beaches,  and  dashes  against  the  higher 
rocky  shores.  Out  in  the  open  ocean  the 
movement  of  the  water  in  waves  is  chiefly 
up  and  down.  One  can  see  how  this  is 
by  shaking  a  large  piece  of  cloth  up  and 
down.  Its  surface  will  form  waves  that 
appear  to  move  across  the  cloth  ;  but  it  is 
plain  that  the  cloth  itself  does  not  move 
forsvard.     It  moves  only  up  and  down. 


♦  : 


Fig.   58.      This  s.iii'iy  licirh  is  \i';(<t  iDr  .lUlomobilc  races 


The  size  ot  waves  depends  upon  the 
strength  of  the  wind.  Gentle  winds  make 
small  waVes,  but  during  great  storms  the 
ocean  waves  are  so  high  that  they  sweep 
over  the  largest  ships. 

In  some  parts  of  the  ocean  the  surface 
waters  have  a  slow,  steady,  forward  move- 
ment. These  moving  masses  of  surface 
waters  are  called  currents.  They  are 
formed  where  the  winds  blow  for  a  long 
time  in  the  same  direction.  The  forward 
movement  of  the  water  cannot  be  seen. 
Men  found  out  about  these  currents  by 
studying  the  direction  taken  by  objects 
floating  in  the  water.  One  may  see  how 
such  currents  are  formed  by 
blowing  slowly  and  steadily 
along  the  surface  of  a  basin 
of  water  (Fig.  56). 

JJ'aves  and  ocean  currents 
are  caused  by  the  winds. 
In  waves  the  zvater  rises  and 
falls.  In  currents  it  moves 
slowly  fnrzvard. 

42.  Shore  Forms  of  Land 
and  Water.  The  shore  line 
where  the  land  and  water 
meet  is  usually  irregular. 
In  some  places  there  are 
high,   rocky   cliffs   (Kig.    57). 


* 


J 


FORMS  OF  LAND  AND  WATER 


33 


Fig.  59.      Islands 


Fig.  60.       Peninsulas 


Fig.  61.      Isthmuses 


Fig.  62.      Capes 


many   thousands    oi    islands 
in  the  world. 

A  body  of  land  that  reaches 
out  into  the  water  and  is 
almost    surrounded    by    the 

In  others  the  slope  of  the   land   is  very     water  is  called  a  peninsula,  a  name  that 

gentle,  and  here  long,  smooth,  gently  slop-     means  "  almost  an  island  "  (Fig.  6o). 

ing   beaches   are    formed.       Many  of  the         A  narrow  neck  of  land  connecting  two 

beaches  are  sandy  and  are  fine  places  for     larger  land    masses  is    called  an  isthmus 

bathing.     Along   some  of   them   summer     (Fig.  6i). 

resorts  have  grow  n  up.     One  of  the  most         A    point    of   land    extending    into   the 

famous  winter  resorts  in  our  country  is     water  is  a  cape  (Fig.  62). 

near  the  beach  shown  in  Figure  58.  A  body  of  water  connected  with  a  larger 

The  small  drawings  on  this  page  and  the     body  of  water,  but  partly  shut  off  by  land, 

next  show  some  of  the  forms  of  land  and     is  called,  in  some  cases,  a  sea  (Fig.  63)  ; 

water  found  along  the  ocean 

shores   in   different   parts  of 

the  world.    The  shaded  parts 

are  land  and  the  white  parts 

are  water. 

Seven  of  the  largest  land 

masses  in  the  world   are  so 

very    large    that    they    are 

called     continents.      Smaller 

bodies  of  land  that  are  sur- 
rounded by  water  are  called 

islands  (Fig.  59).     Some  is- 
lands are  much  smaller  than 

others.      Many    islands    arc 

near  the  large  land  masses, 

but    there    are    also    many 

others  in  different   parts  of 

the  ocean.     There  are  many, 


r^ 


->^^' 


5 


Fig.  63.      Seas 


34 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


r. 

1 

L 

__      )t 

^-^ 

c 


I V   :  V 


Fig.  64.      Bays  and  Gulfs 


Ocean 


\    e     a       C 


Fig.  65.      Straits 


in  Other  cases  a  gulf ;  and  in  others  a  bay 
(Fig.  64). 

A  narrow  passageway  of  water  that 
connects  two  larger  bodies  of  water  is 
called  a  strait  (Fig.  65). 

Visit  the  shore  of  the  largest  body  of 
water  near  your  home.  See  if  you  can 
find  an  island,  a  peninsula,  an  isthmus, 
and  a  cape.  Perhaps  you  can  find  a  place 
where  the  shore  bends  inward  to  form  a 
small  gulf  or  bay.  Model  these  forms  in 
sand  in  a  sliallow  basin  which  you  can 
partly  fill  with  water. 

43.  Fishing  in  Ocean  Waters. — In  the 
shallow  ocean  w  aters  that  border  the  con- 
tinents there  are  large  numbers  of  fish. 
Among  the  most  important  fishing  grounds 
are  the  cod  fisheries  off  the  northeastern 
coast  of  our  own  country.  When  the  sea- 
son opens,  the  fishermen  go  out  in  small 
ships  to  the  fishing  grounds  and  stay  there 
until  their  ships  are  loaded,  or  until  the 
fishing  season  is  over.  If  the  boats  re- 
main away  from  port  a  long  time,  the  fish 
are  cleaned  and  salted.  When  the  boat 
returns  to  port  the  salted  fish  are  usually 
dried  on  racks  in  the  open  air.  Other  im- 
portant food  fish  found  in  the  ocean  are 
the  mackerel,  the  halibut,  the  salmon,  the 
herring,  and  the  sardine.  Oysters,  clams, 
and  lobsters  are  found  in  the  shallower 
waters  along  the  shore  of  the  ocean. 

Many  fish  are  found  in  the  shallow  ocean 
waters.  Jmong  them  are  cod,  mackerel, 
halibut,  and  herring. 


Review  of  Sections  36  to  43. — 1.  In  what 
ways  do  rivers  begin  ?  2.  What  is  ground 
water.?     3.  How  are  wells  made.?     4.  What  are 


springs 


5.  What  is  a  river  sj-stem  ?  6.  What  is  a  main 
stream  .?  7.  What  are  tributaries  ?  8.  Where 
do  streams  flow  rapidly  and  cut  deep,  narrow 
valleys .?  9.  What  is  the  difference  between  a 
waterfall    and    a    cascade  ?       What    are    rapids  f 

10.  What  food  do  we  sometimes  get  from  rivers  ? 

11.  Where  are  salmon  caught? 

12.  What  is  a  swamp?  13.  How  is  a  lake 
formed  ?     How  may  a  lake  basin  become  dry  land  r 

14.  How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  covered 
by  the  ocean  ?  15.  How  may  we  get  an  idea  of  its 
size?  16.  How  are  waves  formed?  Currents? 
17.  What  is  an  island?  Peninsula?  Cape? 
Isthmus?  Sea?  Gulf?  Bay?  Strait?  18.  In 
what  parts  of  the  ocean   are  many  fish  caught  ? 

19.  Name      some      important      kinds      of      fish. 

20.  Where  are  oysters   and   clams   found  ? 

MANUFACTURING 

44.  The  Changing  of  Raw  Materials. — 
The  industries  that  we  have  been  study- 
ing are  those  by  which  we  get  most  of 
the  things  or  materials  that  we  use  for 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  A  few  of 
these  different  materials  can  be  used  in 
the  form  in  which  we  find  them.  Most 
of  them,  however,  i^iust  first  be  prepared 
in  some  way  before  they  are  used. 

Wheat  is  crushed  into  flour,  and  the 
flour  baked  into  bread.  The  wool  cut 
from  sheep  is  cleaned,  spun  into  yarn, 
woven  into  cloth,  cut  into  ])roper  shape, 
and  made  into  clothing.  Iron  ore  dug 
from  the  ground  is  smelted  in  a  furnace, 
and  the  iron  is  made  into  stoves,  beams. 


i'lg.  66.     In  a  steel  mill.     A  ladle  of  molten  stctl  is  being  run  into  forms  to  cool.     Steel  is  a  kind  of  iron 

35 


36 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK   AND   LIVE 


bars,  or  nails.  The 
logs  cut  from  forest 
trees  are  taken  to 
the  mills  and  sawed 
into  lumber,  \\hich 
is  dried  and  finally 
made  into  articles 
that  people  need. 
The  wheat,  the 
wool,  the  iron  ore, 
and  the  timber  are 
raw  materials.  The 
process     by     which 


must  be  thought  of 
when  factory  sites 
are  chosen. 

A  factory  must 
have  power,  or  a 
force  to  make  its  ma- 
chinery go.  Wheels 
turned  by  falling 
water  give  enough 
power  to  run  the 
machinery  of  a  small 
factory  or  mill.  In 
large  factories,  such 


raw  materials  are  made  into  things  that  as  the  one  shown  in  Figure  3,  where  many 

people  want  is  called  manufacturing.  men  and  women  work,  the  power  is  fur- 

The  first  settlers  in  this  country  made  nished    by    large  waterfalls   or   by  great 

in  their  own  homes  most  of  the  things  that  steam  engines  run  by  burning  coal.     The 

they  needed.     Now  the  farmer  gives  his  location  of  many  factories  has  been  chosen 

time  to  farming,  the  miner  to  mining,  the  because  of  a  waterfall  or  a  coal  mine  near 

lumberman  to  lumbering,  and  the  manu-  at  hand  to  furnish  the  power.     But   by 

facturer  makes  things  for  them  all.     In  the    use    of    electricity,    power    can    be 

order  to  do  this  he  must  obtain  a  large  carried   and    used    many  miles  from  the 

amount  of  necessary  raw  material.     The  place  where  it  is  developed, 

milk  from  many  farms  is  needed  to  make  Not  only  must  a  factory  have  the  raw 

enough  butter  or  cheese  for  our  people,  material  to  manufacture,  and  the  power  to 

The  wool  from  very  many  sliecp  is  needed  run  the  machinery,  but  it  must  also  have 

to   make    the   yarn    that    is   woven    into  people  to  do  the  work.     Manufacturing 

cloth.  is  carried  on  best  where  there  are  many 

The  products  of  agriculture,  mining,  and  people    who    have    learned    how    to    use 

lumbering   are   raw   materials  which  must  machinery. 

generally  go  through  the  process  of  maniifac-  After    the    raw    materials    have    been 

taring  before  they  are  ready  for  man''s  use.  changed    by   manufacture   into   useful   or 

A'ot  many  years  ago  much  manufacturing  beautiful  things,  the  manufactured  goods 

was  carried  on  in  each  home.      Now  most  must   be   sold.     When   possible,  factories 

people  give  all  of  their  time  to  their  special  are  located  iirar  the  |)C()pIe  who  will  use 

work.  the  goods  made,  for  the  goods  will  then 

45.    Locating    Factories. — Most    manu-  not  have  to  be  carried  a  long  distance  to 

facturing  is  carried  on   in   large  factories  their  market. 


where  the  greater  part  of  thr  work  is  done 
by  machinery  fKig.  67).  Many  factories 
are  located  near  the  raw  materials  that 
they   use,   but   this  is  not   true  of  all    of 


them.     There  are  other  things  also  that     tured  goods. 


In  deciding  where  to  build  a  factory  the 
manufacturer  must  think  of  where  he  is  to 
get  his  raw  material,  his  power,  and  his 
labor,  and  where  he  can  sell  the  manufac- 


COMMERCE 


37 


Review  of  Sections  44  and  45.— I.  What  inilus-  rivers,  and  manufacturing  in  their  fac- 
er cs  tumi.sh  tiu- m.ucnals  ustd  for  food,  clothin!.,  t.jries.  We  liiui  in  our  stores  (Fig.  68) 
ami  shelter  ?  2.  Are  we  able  to  use  many  of  these  1  ■  1  1  c  c 
materials  In  the  condition  >n  which  we  Hnd  them  ?  '"'^"y  ^h'^S^  that  have  come  from  far- 
3.  Name  a  few  raw  materials.  4.  What  do  we  away  countries.  How  do  they  come  to  be 
call  the  process  by  which  they  are  prepared  for  here  ?  Of  course  some  one  bought  them 
use .'     S-  Where    did    the    early    settlers    in    this 


country  get  the  things  they  needed  ?     6.  Where 
are  such  things  maile  now  ? 

7.  What  is  a  factor}-  ?  8.  What  must  a 
factorv  have  ?  9.  How  may  this  be  furnished  ? 
lo.  Why  are  factories  located  where  tiicre  are 
many  people  ? 


COMMERCE 


in  the  country  from  which  they  came,  and 
sent  them  to  our  country.  They  were 
probably  bought  and  sold  several  times 
before  they  reached  the  store  where  we 
found  them. 

The  traders  that  we  know  best  are  the 
men  who  keep  the  stores,  but  there  are 
many  others  whom  we  do  not  know. 
Some  of  them  travel  to  distant  parts  of 
tlie  world  to  buy  things  that  cannot  be 
found  nearer  home. 

Trade  and  transportation  make  com- 
merce. Men  travel  to  all  parts  of  the  world 
to  buy  goods,  which  finally  reach  the  stores 
where  we  buy  them. 

47.  Transportation  in  Cities. — In  great 
cities  many  goods  have  to  be  transported, 
and  thousands  of  people  must  walk  or  ride 
from  one  part  of  the  city  to  another  (Fig. 
69).  For  this  reason  many  wide  streets 
are  necessary.  The  streets  of  a  large  city 
may  cover  an  eighth,  or  even  a  fourth, 
of  the  whole  surface.  They  divide  the 
city  into  blocks,  on  which  are  the  houses 
and  other  buildings. 


46.  Trade. — Two  important  industries 
have  not  yet  been  studied.  They  are 
trade,  or  the  buying  and  selling  of  goods, 
and  transportation,  or  the  carrying  of  goods 
and  people  from  one  place  to  another. 
Together  they  are  called  commerce. 

In  other  parts  of  the  world,  people  are 
at  work  as  we  are  in  our  own  country 
(Sec.  6).  They  are  raising  food  in  their 
fields,  digging  coal  and  ores  from  their 
mines,   catching   fish    in   their  lakes   and 

tRHfU 


^p   A^P^EJal 

h 

s 

m 

Fig.  69.     A  crowded  city  street 


38 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK   AND   LIVE 


In  the  business  districts 
the  larger  buildings  are 
many  stories  high  (Fig. 
70),  and  hundreds  of 
people  are  at  work  in 
them.  Even  in  parts  of 
a  city  where  people  have 
their  homes,  the  buildings 
are  large  and  crowded  close 
together,  and  many  people 
live  in  a  small  space. 

Most  of  the  workers  in 
the  business  districts  live 
in  other  parts  of  the  city, 
and  thousands  ride  to 
and  from  their  places  of 
business.  In  some  streets 
there  are  tracks  in  the 
center  for  street  cars,  and 
spaces  on  each  side  for 
wagons  and  automobiles. 
In  front  of  the  houses  and 
business  places  there  are 
wide  sidewalks. 

In  very  large  cities  some 
of  the  streets  are  not  wide 
enough  for  all  the  traffic. 
Elevated  railways  have  been 
built  above  them  (Fig.  71), 
and  subways  for  electric  rail 
been  dug  underneath  them  (F 


Most  city  streets  are 
paved.  If  this  were  not 
done,  they  would  be  very 
dusty  when  the  weather  is 
dry,  and  muddy  when  it  is 
wet.  In  paving  a  street, 
a  layer  of  broken  stone  or 
gravel  mixed  with  cement 
is  first  put  in  as  a  founda- 
tion. On  top  of  it  blocks 
of  wood,  stone,  or  brick  are 
laid  for  a  pavement.  The 
top  layer  is  sometimes 
made  of  asphalt  (Fig.  loi), 
a  thick,  gummy  substance 
that  hardens  \Ahen  cold. 

In  the  smaller  cities  and 
country  villages  not  all  of 
the  streets  are  paved,  and 
there  are  few  street  cars. 
The  sidewalks  are  nar- 
rower. The  houses  are 
not  so  close  to  each  other 
as  in  a  great  city,  so  that 
there  is  more  open  space. 

In  cities  the  buildings  are 
i)i  blocks,  with  streets  be- 
tzveen.  Most  of  the  streets 
are  paved,  and  on  some  oj 
roads   have     them  are  street  car  tracks.    A  few  large  cities 


Fig.    70.     A  higli  olTice  building,  oi 
Broadway,  New  York 


ig-  72). 


have  also  elevated  railways  and  subways. 


w 

■  V  i*f| 

--'^*!^ 

■;■:.*' 

'1 

Kig.  71.     An  elevated  railroad 


Kig.  72.     Subway  train  and  station  platform 


COMMERCE 


39 


t'   S    l>' I'lrmii'it  of  AgnctiuUTL 

Fig.  73.     An  unimproved  country  road 


Fig.  74.     A  good  road.     Notice  the  large  londs 


48.  Transportation  in  the  Country. — In 
the  country  there  are  fewer  peojile  and 
not  so  many  goods  to  be  transported. 
Paved  streets  and  broad  sidewalks  are  not 
needed.  Roads  are  necessary,  for  the 
products  of  the  farm  must  be  taken  to 
market,  and  the  farmers  must  be  able  to 
get  their  supphes.  But  in  the  country  the 
roads  occupy  only  a  small  part  of  the  land. 

Some  years  ago  most  of  our  country 
roads  were  poor.  They  were  muddy  when 
it  rained,  and  dusty  when  it  was  dry. 
Now  good  roads  are  being  built  in  country 
districts.  Usually  the  surface  dirt  is  re- 
moved and  the  slope,  or  grade,  made  easier 
by  cutting  away  the  tops  of  hills  and 
filling  the  deeper  hollows.  A  new  surface 
is  then  made  of  concrete,  brick,  broken 
stone,  or  gravel.  Roads  made  from 
broken  stone  or  gravel  are  packed  and 
leveled  by  heavy  rollers,  and  tar  or  a 
cheap  black  oil  is  sometimes  added  to 
keep  down  the  dust.  On  such  good  roads 
automobiles  and  trucks  may  be  easily 
used.  Horses  can  also  draw  much  heavier 
loads  than  on  poor  roads  (Figs.  73,  74). 

In  mountain  regions,  in  swamps,  and  in 
great  forests,  travel  and  the  transportation 
of  goods  are  always  difficult  and  often 
dangerous.  On  many  of  the  steep  moun- 
tain slopes,  only  narrow  paths,  or  trails, 
have  been  constructed.     Over  these  trails 


everything  must  be  carried  on  men's 
backs,  or  by  sure-footed  donkeys  or 
other  animals  that  have  been  trained  for 
the  work. 

Not  so  many  roads  are  needed  in  the 
country  as  in  the  city.  Many  of  the  old  dirt 
roads  have  been  improved  by  making  the 
grades  easy  and  putting  down  a  hard  sur- 
face. On  the  trails  in  mountain  regions  or 
dense  forests,  goods  must  he  carried  on  the 
backs  of  men  or  animals. 

49.  Transportation  by  Rail. — The  most 
important  of  all  the  ways  in  which  people 
travel  and  goods  are  transported  on  land, 
is  by  the  railroad. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  electric 
railway  lines  are  used  to  transport  both 
passen-gers  and  goods.  More  and  more 
of  these  are  built  each  year,  especially  in 
rich  farming  and  suburban  districts  where 
it  pays  to  run  the  cars  frequently. 

The  steam  railroads  in  our  country  are 
the  longest  and  best  in  the  world.  By 
traveling  several  days  and  nights  a  person 
can  go  entirely  across  the  country  with 
but  a  single  change  of  cars.  On  some 
trains  there  are  "  sleeping  cars  "  in  w  hich 
the  seats  used  during  the  day  are  made 
up  into  beds  at  night.  There  is  also 
a  dining  car  in  which  meals  are  cooked 
and  served.  Such  trains  stop  only  at  the 
most  important  places.     They  are  called 


40 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


d 

■--» 

m 

1 

1km 

.._, 

■ 

.-^ifc,/* 

"1 

i     ^mB 

g^>;' 

^^^HBHHH 

S5 

^'■^'^^' 

m 

r'^Ti  ■■  '•*' 

MWHML^ gldi^'"-^**»;r%--B*^^<^Sgi 

Fig. 

75. 

A  fast  express 

train 

on  one  of  the 

great  railroads  in  the  eastern  part  of  our 

country 

express  trains,  while  those  that  stop  at  the 
smaller  stations  are  called  local  trains. 

The  transportation  of  goods,  or  freight, 
IS  a  very  large  part  of  the  railroad  busi- 
ness. So  important  has  the  carrying 
of  freight  become  that  a  variety  of  special 
cars  have  been  built,  such  as  those  used 
to  carry  coal,  petroleum,  live  cattle, 
meat,  fish,  and  fruit. 

In  order  that  trains  may  be  hauled 
easily,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  tracks 
as  nearly  level  as  possible.  lor  this 
reason  most  railroads  have  been  built 
through  river  valleys  and  on  river  flood 
plains.  In  the  more  open  areas  of  the 
great  plains,  railroads  are  built  in  nearly 
straight  lines.  Even  here,  however, 
some  curves  are  made 
in  order  to  reach  the 
rivers  at  the  best  i^laces 
for  building  bridges. 
In  the  mountains  only 
a  few  valleys  can  be 
used, and  the  tracks  are 
therefore  very  winding. 
The  grades  are  steep 
and  the  trains  wind 
slowly  up  the  moun- 
tains. In  (limbing  a 
mountain,  a  heavy  train 
may  be  divided  into 
two  parts,  each  pulled 
by  two  heavy  engines. 


r 


Fig.   76.     An  airplane,  the  "  NC4,"  which  llcw 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  1919 


In  some  mountain  regions,  sheds  have 
been  built  over  the  tracks  to  protect 
them  from  falling  or  sliding  snow,  and 
tunnels  have  been  dug  to  avoid  a  part 
of  the  climb. 

Passengers  and  freight  are  carried  rap- 
idly on  land  by  the  railroads.  On  the  best 
trains  passengers  can  travel  long  distances 
zvithout  changing  cars;  they  eat  and  sleep 
on  the  train.  Trains  are  most  easily 
hauled  over  level  tracks. 

50.  Transportation  through  the  Air. — 
Two  kinds  of  flying  machines  are  in  use. 
One,  the  airplane  (Fig.  76),  is  heavier 
than  the  air.  It  rises  from  the  ground 
only  when  its  machinery  is  in  motion. 
Most  airplanes  carry  only  one  or  two 
passengers,  although 
many  larger  ones  have 
been  built.  They  are 
used  for  pleasure  fly- 
ing and  for  speedy 
transportation  of  mail, 
Ireiglit,  and  passengers. 
Another  kind  of  air- 
ship is  lighter  than  tiie 
air,  like  a  balloon.  It 
is  called  a  dirigible  be- 
cause it  has  machinery 
iiy  w  hich  it  can  be  made 
to  go  wherethe  ojierator 
wishes.  Dirigibles  like 
the      one      shown       in 


COMMERCE 


41 


Figure  77  carry  n  number  of 
passengers  and  stay  in  the  air 
for  several  days  at  a  time.  Under 
the  long  gas  container  that  sup- 
ports the  dirigible  are  cabins  with 
seats  for  the  passengers. 

In  recent  wars  some  dirigibles 
and  very  many  airplanes  have 
been  used  for  scouting,  bombing, 
and  fighting. 

Flying  machines  are  expensive. 
Their  use  in  commerce  is  small  but 
increasing. 

SI.  Transportation  by  Water. — One 
of  the  easiest  and  cheapest  ways  of 
transporting  goods  is  by  water.  Boats 
do  not  move  so  rapidly  as  trains,  but  one 
large  boat  can  carry  as  much  freight  as 
several  trains.  Wherever  transportation 
by  water  is  possible  it  is  the  first  method 
to  be  used  in  a  new  country,  because 
rafts  and  boats  can  be  built  more  easily 
than  roads.  Steamships  (Figs,  i,  81) 
carrying  both  passengers  and  freight  are 
in  use  on  the  ocean  and  on  many  great 
rivers  and  lakes. 

In  some  rivers,  however,  there  are 
waterfalls  or  rapids  over  which  vessels 
cannot  go.  Broad  and  deep  ditches,  or 
canals,  have  been 
dug  around  many 
of  these,  with  locks 
to  raise  and  lower 
the  boats  from  one 
level  to  another. 
The  water  in  the 
upper  level  is  held 
back  by  the  gates 
at  both  ends  of  the 
lock.  One  gate  or 
the  other  is  always 
closed.  A  boat  on 
the  lower  level   en- 


Fig.  78.     A  lock  on  the  Panama  ship  canal 


ters  the  lock,  the  lower  gate  is  closed 
behind  it,  and  the  water  is  admitted  to 
the  lock  (Fig.  78),  lifting  the  boat  to  the 
upper  level.  Then  the  upper  gate  is 
opened  and  the  boat  moves  on.  Many 
rivers  have  been  deepened  and  improved 
in  other  ways  so  that  boats  can  be 
used  on  them. 

Long  canals  have  been  dug  across  the 
land  so  that  loaded  boats  or  ships  can 
pass  from  one  river,  lake,  or  other  body 
of  water  to  another.  As  the  water  in 
canals  must  be  kept  nearly  level,  it  is 
necessary  in  some  places  to  cut  through 
small  hills  or  to  build  high  banks. 

On  the  smaller  canals,  boats  are  pulled, 
or  towed,  by  horses 
or  mules  walking  on 
a  road,  or  tow  path, 
on  one  side  of  the 
canal.  Other  canals 
have  been  made  so 
wide  and  deep  that 
good-sized  steam- 
boats can  be  used 
on  them.  A  few 
canals  are  large 
enough  for  large 
steamers ;  they  are 
called  ship  canals. 


42 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


up  in  places  where  the  water  near  the 
shore  is  deep  enough  to  float  the  ocean 
steamships.  They  are  at  or  near  the 
mouths  of  great  rivers,  or  where  a  bend 
in  the  coast  has  partly  surrounded  some 
deep  water  to  form  a  bay.  Such  river 
mouths  and  bays  are  safe  harbors  because 
the  ocean  waves  are  shut  out  and  the 
ships  find  good  places  in  which  to  anchor 
and  load  or  unload  goods. 

Where  there  is  no  good  natural  protec- 
tion for  ships,  a  shallow  harbor  may  be 
Transportation  on  rivers,  lakes,  and  deepened,  or  an  artificial  harbor  may  be 
oceans  is  usually  cheaper,  though  slower,  made  by  building  stone  walls,  or  break- 
than  transportation  by  rail.  Many  canals  waters  (Fig.  79).  In  most  harbors,  piers 
have  been  constructed  around  the  falls  and  or  wharves  have  been  built  where  ships 
rapids  of  rivers,  and  across  country  to  receive  and  land  their  passengers,  and  load 
connect    rivers,    lakes,    and    oceans.  and  unload  their  freight  (Figs,  i,  80). 

52.    Ocean    Commerce    and    Seaports.  In  every  large  harbor  there  are  many 

— The  greatest  of  all  the  world's  high-  powerful  little  tugboats,  which  help  large 
ways  is  the  ocean.  In  the  far  north  and  steamers  to  enter  and  leave  their  docks, 
the  far  south  its  waters  are  frozen,  but  as  the  space  between  the  wharves  is 
over  the  rest  of  its  surface  great  ships  called.  In  some  harbors  many  of  the 
can  safely  come  and  go.  Every  year,  boats  to  be  seen  are  wide,  clumsy-looking 
thousands  of  people  go  back  and  forth  be-  ferryboats,  used  in  carrying  passengers, 
tween  our  own  country  and  the  lands  wagons,  automobiles,  and  even  railroad 
beyond  the  ocean.  W^hen  the  ships  leave  trains  across  a  wide  river  or  bay. 
our  shores,  they  carry 
goods  that  we  are  sending 
to  other  countries.  When 
they  return,  they  carry 
goods  that  other  coun- 
tries are  sending  to  us. 
There  is  so  much  travel 
and  trade  that  there  are 
always  thousands  of  ships 
moving  across  the  ocean 
or  along  the  coasts. 

Much  of  the  ocean  trade 
is  carried  on  by  a  few 
important  countries  and 
through  a  few  seaport 
cities.    These  have  grown 


Fig.  80. 


tc.  Dilroii  I'hoiovruiii. 

Some  of  Ihc  wharves  of  tlic  liai  bor  of  New  York 


COMMERCE 


43 


ill  I 


Fig.  81.    A  large  ocean  steamer,  882  feet  long 


Many  ot  the  largest  cities  of  the  world 
have  grown  up  where  there  are  tine  har- 
bors on  the  seashore,  or  where  deep 
rivers  enable  ocean  steamers  to  reach 
their  wharves.  All  the  important  sea- 
ports are  located  so  that  freight  and 
passengers  can  be  easily  transported  to 
and  from  the  interior  of  the  country. 

Only  a  very  few  ports  have  water  deep 
enough  for  such  large  ocean  steamers 
as  the  one  shown  in  Figure  8i.  Nine 
hundred  men  are  needed  to  do  the  work 
on  this  ship.  It  carries  more  than  two 
thousand  passengers,  and  it  requires  many 
trainloads  of  coal  on  every  trip  to  drive 
it  across  the  ocean.  It  moves  through 
the  water  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles 
an  hour.  Not  all  of  the  ocean-going  ships 
are  large,  and  not  all  of  them  are  steam- 
ships. A  few  great  sailing  ships  are  still 
in  use,  but  the  larger  sailing  ships  have 
engines  that  they  can  use  when  the  wind 
is  not  blowing.  The  small  ships  make 
only  short  journeys  along  the  coast. 

Much  of  the  commerce  of  the  important 
countries  of  the  world  is  carried  on  across 
the  ocean.  Large  cities  have  grown  up  at 
the  ports  where  goods  are  transferred  from 
cars  to  ships. 


53.  Protection  against 
Dangers  to  Navigation. — 
On  the  oi)en  ocean  there 
is  little  danger  to  ships 
except  from  fogs  and  from 
violent  storms.  During 
such  storms  great  waves 
toss  the  smaller  ships 
about,  sweep  over  them, 
and  sometimes  wreck 
them.  During  a  fog,  if 
the  sailors  are  not  careful, 
even  the  largest  vessels 
may  be  wrecked  by  col- 
lision with  another  ship  or  with  an  iceberg. 
Navigation  along  the  coast  is  much 
more  dangerous  than  on  the  open  ocean. 
There  are  hidden  rocks  and  reefs,  as  well 
as  shallow  places,  that  ships  must  avoid. 
In  fair  weather,  with  clear  skies,  the 
officers  of  a  ship  can  tell,  by  means  of  in- 
truments,  just  where  they  are,  from  the 
position  of  the  sun  or  stars.  It  is  then 
easy  to  follow  certain  ocean  routes.  Dur- 
ing fogs  and  storms,  ships  may  drift,  or 
be  driven,  far  out  of  their  courses.  In 
most  countries,  to  guard  against  dangers 
along  the  coast,  lighthouses  (Fig.  82) 
are  built  on  capes 
or  islands.  The 
lights  in  the  light- 
houses are  of  dif- 
ferent colors,  or 
the  light  is  made 
to  flash  in  differ- 
ent ways,  so  that 
the  officer  of  a 
ship,  as  soon  as 
he  sees  a  light, 
can  tell  where  his 
vessel  is,  and 
what  danger  he 
must  avoid. 


44 


HOW  PEOPLE  WORK  AND  LIVE 


In    some    dangerous    shal-     p  I         Dangerous  places  along  the 

low  places,  where  it  has  not  „M^  coast    are    ^narked    by    light- 

been  possible  to  build  light-  ^^  houses     or     lightships.       7  he 

houses,     lightships     are     an-  ^^  channels   that   lead   into    har- 

chored.    They  have  tall  masts  ^M  bors    are    shown     by     buoys. 

on  which  lights  are  hung.  iS^^  ff  hen  necessary,  harbors  and 

In  order  to  avoid  sand  bars       '^Hfr*^         channels  are  dredged  to   keep 

or  rocks,   most   of  the  great  Fig.  83.   Beii  buoy  them  fro^n  filling   with    sedi- 

harbors  of  the  world  must  be ment  or  sand. 

entered  through  narrow  channels.  Low  54.  Aids  to  Commerce. — Among  the 
iron  buoys,  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  important  aids  to  commerce  are  the 
Figure  83,  are  placed  along  eachsideof  such     mails,  the  telephone,  and  the  telegraph. 

The  mails  are  carried  on  the  fastest 
trains  and  the  swiftest  steamships.  As 
soon  as  the  mail  is  put  on  board,  clerks 
begin  to  sort  it  (Fig.  84)  and  put  it  into 
bags,  so  that  it  can  be  left  at  the  proper 
stations  or  ports.  Letters  that  do  not 
weigh  more  than  one  ounce  are  carried 
anyuhere  in  our  country  for  two  cents, 
and  between  our  country  and  other 
countries  for  two  cents  or  five  cents.  It 
is  possible  also  to  send  parcels  by  mail 
(Fig.  85).  This  part  of  the  postal  serv- 
ice is  called  the  parcel  post.  Messages 
sent  by  mail  are  slower  than  those  sent 
by  telephone  or  telegraph,  but  the  cost 
of  sendinLT  them  is  much  less. 


U.  S.  I'osI  Ollla 

Fig.  84.     Sorting  mail  in  a  mail  car 


channels.  These  buoys  are  firmly  anchored 
to  the  bottom,  and  many  of  them  carry 
lights  that  can  be  seen  at  night.  Others 
are  so  constructed  that  they  whistle  or 
ring  a  bell  as  the  waves  move  them. 

Many  harbors  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
must  be  dredged  frequently  in  order  to 
take  OUT  rlu-  sediment  that  is  hiini4 
deposited.  .At  the  entrance  to  a  harbor 
the  waves  sometimes  shift  tiie  sand  bars 
about  .ind  obstruct  the  channel,  which 
must  then   i)e  cleared  again. 

In  the  more  important  harbors,  only 
pilots  whc)  know  its  channels  are  allowed 
to  steer  ships  in  and  out 


CUM  MERGE 


45 


By  means  of  the 
telephone  one  can 
talk  with  another 
person  at  a  distance 
almost  as  well  as  if 
both  were  in  tlie 
same  room.  For  this 
reason  telepiiones 
are  in  use  in  busi- 
ness places  and  in 
many  homes. 

Messages  can  al- 
so be  sent  quickly 
by  telegraph.  The 
message  is  sent  from  one  telegraph  office 
to  another,  and  is  then  delivered  to  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  either  by 
telephone  or  by  messenger. 

Most  telegraph  and  telephone  messages 
are  sent  by  means  of  wires,  which  stretch 
across  the  country  on  poles  or  are  hidden 
under  city  streets  in  pipes  or  conduits. 
By  means  of  cables,  also,  we  can  telegraph 
across  the  ocean.  These  submarine  cables 
are  made  of  a  number  of  wires  twisted 
together.  They  rest  on  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean,  to  which  they  are  lowered 
from  ships. 

Some  telegraph  and  telephone  instru- 
ments work  without  connecting  wires 
(Fig.  86).  By  their  use  messages  are  sent 
through  the  air,  over  land,  across  the 
ocean,  between  ships  at  sea,  and  between 
ships  and  the  land.  Ships  meeting  with 
accidents  at  sea  send  wireless  messages  to 
other  ships  asking  help  to  save  the  lives 
of  their  passengers  and  crews. 

hi  commerce  it  is  necessary  for  people 
to  send  frequent  messages  to  one  another. 
The  mails  will  carry  a  message  iji  a  few 
hours  or  days  or  weeks;  but  to  those  who 
can  be  reached  by  telephone  or  telegraph, 
a  message  can  be  sent  in  a  few  minutes. 


Fig.  86.     Wireless  telegraph  station.     Part  of  Uiu  appa 
ratus  needs  to  be  high  in  the  air 


Review  of  Sections 
46  to  54. —  I.  Wli;it  is 
commerce?  2.  Name 
some  persons  you  know 
who  are  engafjed  in 
trade.  3.  What  is 
transportation  ? 

4.  How  are  buildings 
and  streets  arranged  in 
a  city  ?  5.  For  what 
are    city    streets    used  f 

6.  Why  is  it  necessary 
for  many  people  to  ride 
to  and  from  their  work  ? 

7.  How  are  they  carried  r 

8.  What  is  done  to  pre- 
vent dust  and  mud  in 
city  streets  ? 

9.  What  kinds  of  roads  do  we  find  in  the 
country  ?  10.  How  are  good  country  roads 
made?  11.  Why  are  they  better  than  dirt 
roads?  12.  How  are  goods  transported  along 
mountain  trails  ? 

13.  Name  two  kinds  of  railways.  14.  What  are 
sleeping  cars?  Dining  cars?  15.  Where  are 
they  used  ?  16.  What  are  express  trains  ?  Local 
trains?  17.  What  special  kinds  of  freight  cars 
do  you  know  about  ?  18.  Why  are  railroad  tracks 
made  as  nearly  level  as  possible  ?  19.  Why  are 
tunnels  built  ?     Snowsheds  ? 

20.  What  two  kinds  of  machines  are  used  for 
transportation  through  the  air? 

21.  What  method  of  transportation  is  cheaper 
than  by  rail  ?  Why  ?  22.  How  do  boats  pass 
waterfalls  and  rapids  in  rivers?  23.  Where  are 
long  canals  dug  ?  24.  How  are  canal  boats 
moved  ?  25.  What  are  locks,  and  how  are  they 
used  ?     26.  What  are  ship  canals  ? 

27.  What  is  the  greatest  of  all  the  world's 
highways  ?  28.  Where  have  the  great  seaports 
grown  up  ?  29.  What  are  harbors  ?  30.  How 
are  they  sometimes  made?  31.  How  large  are 
the  great  ocean  steamers?  32.  How  fast  can 
they  go  ? 

33.  What  are  the  dangers  to  navigation  along 
seacoasts  ?  34.  How  are  ships'  officers  warned 
of  such  dangers?  35.  Where  are  lighthouses 
usually  built?  36.  Where  are  lightships  an- 
chored ?  37.  What  are  buoj's,  and  how  are  they 
used  ?  38.  When  harbors  are  made  too  shallow 
by  sediment  from  rivers,  what  is  done  ? 
39.  Where  are  pilots  employed,  and  what  do 
they  do  ? 

40.  Name  three  aids  to  commerce. 


46 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


Fig.  87.    The  wind  is  blowi 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 

55.  The   Air  Supports  Life. — Surround- 
ing the  earth  on  wliich  we  live,  and  ex- 


from  the  streets,  and 
leaves  and  lighter 
seeds  from  plants  in 
the  fields.  It  moves 
sailboats  (Fig.  87). 
It  sets  the  branches 
of  trees  in  motion, 
and  carries  av^ay  the 
smoke  that  rises  from 
chimneys  (Fig.  88). 

When     it     moves 
very  rapidly,  it  may 
tear    up    trees    and 
overturn   and    destroy  buildings.     Some- 
times whole  villages  have  been  destroyed 
in  this  way. 
Air  moving  so  rapidly  that  it  can   be 


tending  many  miles  above  us,  is  a  great     felt,  is  called  wind. 


body  of  air,  called  the  atmosphere 


The  wind  does  much  important  work. 


Plants  and  animals  cannot  live  without  On  lakes  and  on  the  ocean  it  blows  against 

air.     We   breathe    it    all    the   time,   even  the  sails  of  ships  and  drives  them  along 

when  we  are   asleep.     In   breathing,  the  (Fig.  87).     It    turns   the   great    arms   of 

air  is  drawn  into  our  lungs,  where  part  of  windmills,   which    many   farmers   use   to 

it   is   taken  into  the   blood.     Plants  and  pump   water   from   wells    (Fig.   89).      It 

animals  that  do  not  have  plenty  of  good  air  blows  the  impure   air  out  of  the  rooms 

soon  sicken  and  die.     Human  beings  can  where  people  live  and  work,  and  leaves 

live  only  a  verj'  few  minutes  without  air.  fresh,   ])ure   air    in    its    place.     It   carries 


The  earth  is  surrounded 
by  the  atmosphere.  /lir  is 
necessary  to  life. 

56.  The  Wind  and  its 
Uses. — When  the  air  is  not 
moving,  we  do  not  often 
think  of  it,  in  spite  of  its 
importance.  If  we  run, 
however,  it  seems  to  blow 
against  our  hands  and  faces 
and  t(j  brush  the  iiair  back 
from  our  foreheads. 

When  the  air  is  moving, 
we  can  sec  the  effects  of 
its  movement.  It  i)i(ks 
up  dust  and  bits  ol   paj)cr 


Im('»-  H'J.     Windmill 


away  the  smoke  and  dust 
of  cities,  and  leaves  behind 
clean  air  that  is  much 
better  for  the  people  to 
breathe. 

As  we  have  already 
learned,  the  wind  causes 
waves  and  ocean  currents 
(Sec.  41). 

Tlie  air  cannot  be  seen, 
but  when  it  is  in  motion,  we 
see  and  feel  its  effects.  The 
wind  turns  windmills,  moves 
sailing  vessels,  and  brings 
frrsh  air  to  houses  and 
workshops. 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


47 


57.  Cause  of  the 
Winds.  —  When  any 
part  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  warmed 
it  becomes  hght- 
er.  The  colder  and 
heavier  air  w  ill  then 
move  under  the 
warm  air  and  push 
it  up.  On  a  still, 
cold  day  this  can  be 
shown  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  air  in  a 
warm  room  when  a 
window  is  opened  at  top  and  bottom. 
The  cold  air  comes  into  the  room  through 
the  lower  opening  and  pushes  under  the 
warm  air.  The  warmer  air  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  room  flows  out  through  the 
upper  opening  (Fig.  90).  The  direction 
in  w  hich  the  air  moves  can  be  shown  by 
holding  a  light  handkerchief  in  front  of 
the  w  indow  openings.  At  the  lower  open- 
ing the  handkerchief  will  blow  into  the 
room.  At  the  upper  opening  it  will  blow 
out  of  the  room. 

The  air  outdoors  is  warmed  or  cooled 
by  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  receives 
heat  from  the  sun.  Some  parts  of  the 
earth  are  warmer  than  other  parts ;  and 
the  uneven  warming  of  the  atmosphere 
causes  winds  that  blow  over  the  earth's 
surface  from  the  colder  to  the  warmer 
regions.  The  land  is  often  warmer  than 
the  ocean  during  the  day,  and  the  winds 
move  in  from  the  ocean  over  the  land. 
The  land  is  usually  cooler  than  the  ocean 
during  the  night,  and  the  wind  then 
moves  the  other  way.  The  great  winds 
of  the  world,  however,  blow  long  distances, 
and  in  directions  that  are  influenced  by 
several  other  causes  besides  the  uneven 
warming  of  the  earth's  surface. 


The  moving  air  blows  the  handkerchiefs 


As  warm  air  is 
light,  and  cool  air  is 
heavy,  winds  move 
over  the  surface  oj 
the  earth,  from  cooler 
to  zvarjuer  regions. 

58.  Water  Vapor 
and  the  Moisture 
in  the  Air. — When 
clothes  that  have 
just  been  washed 
and  are  still  wet. 
are  hung  out  ot 
doors  on  a  bright 
day,  they  soon  dry.  When  a  basin  of 
water  is  left  uncovered  and  undisturbed 
for  a  few  days,  the  water  disappears. 
What  becomes  of  it .?  In  very  small 
particles,  so  small  that  they  cannot  be 
seen,  the  water  passes  into  the  air  and 
becomes  a  part  of  it.  This  change  goes 
on  more  or  less  rapidly  wherever  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  is  damp,  but  especially 
from  bodies  of  water.  Water  in  the  form 
of  separate  particles  so  small  that  they 
cannot  be  seen,  like  air,  is  called  water 
vapor.  Such  particles  may  unite  to  form 
tiny  drops  of  water  that  can  be  seen,  but 
are  still  so  very  small  that  they  float  in  the 
air,  forming  clouds,  fog,  or  mist.  Most  of 
the  water  vapor  in  the  air  comes  from  the 
ocean.  Such  vapor  may  move,  in  winds, 
far  over  the  land. 

Heat  causes  water  to  become  water 
vapor.  When  water  is  boiled,  it  changes 
to  vapor  rapidly.  If  a  teakettle  contain- 
ing water  is  left  over  the  fire  until  the 
water  boils,  a  cloud  of  "steam"  will  be 
seen  coming  from  the  spout  of  the  kettle. 
The  "  steam"  that  can  be  seen,  however, 
is  a  cloud  of  tiny  drops  of  water  :  it  is  not 
the  water  vapor  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking,  for  water  vapor  cannot  be  seen. 


48 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


Look  closely  at  the  end  of  the 
spout.  Between  the  end  of  the 
spout  and  the  cloud  of  "  steam" 
there  is  a  clear  space  where 
nothing  can  be  seen.  The  water 
vapor  or  steam  is  really  passing 
through  this  space,  but  it  is  in- 
visible. As  it  cools  it  changes 
into  a  visible  cloud  of  "  steam." 
Later  this  disappears  because  it 


the  air.  It  comes  from 
the  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  soil  and  from 
zvater  surfaces.  Most 
of  it  rises  from  the 
ocean.  Much  vapor 
from  the  ocean  is  swept 
over  the  land  by  the 
winds. 

59.  The   Forms   in 


mixes   with   the   air   and   becomes  water     which    Moisture    Condenses. — You    have 
vapor  again.  already  learned  that  mountain  tops    are 

Warm  air  can  contain  more  water  vapor  colder  than  their  lower  slopes  (Sec.  25). 
than  cold  air.  Anything  that  warms  the  When  the  warm  air  from  the  surface  of 
air  makes  it  possible  for  it  to  contain  more  the  earth  is  pushed  up  to  higher  levels  it 
water  vapor.  When  water  is  changed  becomes  cooler.  The  vapor  it  contains 
into  vapor,  we  say  that  it  has  been  evap-  is  condensed  and  begins  to  form  clouds, 
orated.  Anything  that  cools  the  air  may  At  first  these  may  look  like  great  white 
cause  it  to  lose  some  of  its  moisture,  mountains  (Fig.  92),  but  with  further  con- 
When  vapor  changes  to  water  again,  we  densation  they  grow  black  and  heavy,  and 
say  that  it  has  been  condensed.  There  rain  begins  to  fall.  Some  of  the  vapor 
is  moisture  in  our  breath,  and  if  we  rising  from  the  ocean  condenses  and  falls 
breathe  against  a  cold  window  pane,  a  back  into  the  ocean.  That  which  falls  on 
thin  coating  of  moisture  is  condensed  on  the  land  may  be  evaporated  again,  or  it 
the  glass.  When  the  air  is  warm  and  may  be  used  by  plants  and  animals,  or  it 
damp,  or  muggy,  the  moisture  in  it  will  may  sink  into  the  ground,  or  run  over  the 
condense  on  the  side  of  a  glass  or  pitcher  surface  in  brooks  and  rivers, 
containing  ice  water.  All  lite  depends  upon  the  presence  of 

There  is  much  invisible  water  vapor  in      moisture    on    the    surface    of    the    earth. 

Where  there  is  no  moisture, 
there  can  be  no  plant  life,  and 
w  ithout  plant  life  no  animals 
or  human  beings  can  live. 

Sometimes  the  warm  air 
of  the  plains  is  forced  up 
the  sides  of  mountains ;  as 
it  becomes  cooler,  the  vapor 
is  condensed  as  rain  or  snow. 
The  side  of  a  mountain 
against  which  the  wind 
blows,  or  tin-  -windward 
side,  is  the  side  that  gets 
the  moisture.     The  opposite. 


Fig.  92.     Clouds,  formtil  of  sinnll  particles  of  moisture 


THE   ATMOSPHERE 


49 


ii(i.   y.;.     Clearing  the  snow  drifts  from  a  railroad  track 


or  lee,  side  of  the  mountain  is  often  left 
almost  without  moisture. 

Moisture  condensing  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth  forms  fog.  Fogs  over  the 
ocean  make  navigation  dangerous  (Sec.  53). 
Water  vapor  at  the  surface  of  the  earth 
often  condenses  during  the  night  into 
drops  of  dezv  and  makes  the  grass  wet. 
If  much  moisture  is  condensed  in  the  air 
when  the  temperature  is  below  freezing, 
it  falls  as  sjiozv  (Fig.  93).  If  moisture  is 
condensed  at  this  temperature  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  it  becomes  frost. 

Moisture  may  be  condensed  as  clouds, 
fog,  rain,  snozv,  dezv,  or  frost. 

60.  The  Weather. — When  we  speak  of 
the  zveather,  we  mean  the  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  at  the  time  as  warm  or  cold, 
wet  or  dry,  clear  or  cloudy,  w  indy  or  still. 
People  learn  a  great  deal  about  the 
weather  of  the  place  where 
they  live.  They  know  which 
winds  bring  rain  and  which 
winds  bring  fair  weather. 
They  learn  when  to  expect 
the  warm  days  and  when  to 
expect  the  cold.  Persons  who 
work  out  of  doors  pay  much 
attention  to  the  weatlier. 
Farmers  wait  for  good  weather 


before  planting  or  harvesting  their  crops. 
Wlien  a  dangerous  storm  is  expected  small 
ships  do  not  leave  port. 

The  weather  is  so  important  to  farmers, 
sailors,  and  many  others  that  our  govern- 
ment sends  out  weather  reports  every 
day,  telling  what  the  weather  is  likely  to 
be  the  next  day  (Fig.  94). 

Notice  the  weather  for  a  few  days  and 
tell  whether  it  is  wet  or  dry  ;  hot,  warm, 
cool,  or  cold.  Read  the  weather  reports 
if  you  can  get  them. 

Review  of  Sections  55  to  60. —  i.  What  is 
the  atmosphere .''  2.  How  great  is  its  extent  ? 
3.  What  would  happen  to  plants,  animals,  and 
human  beings  if  there  were  no  air.'' 

4.  How  can  we  prove  that  there  is  air  when 
it  is  not  moving  ?  5.  When  air  is  moving  what 
are  some  of  its  effects .'  6.  What  work  does  the 
wind  do  ?      7.  What  causes  winds  .'' 

8.  How  do  we  know  that  air  takes  up  water 
vapor?  9.  What  is  evaporation?  10.  Which 
takes  up  more  vapor,  warm  air  or  cold  air  ? 
II.  What  happens  when  warm  air  containing 
much  vapor  is  cooled  ?  12.  How  does  it  happen 
that  vapor  evaporated  from  the  ocean  is  con- 
densed over  the  land  ? 

13.  When  condensation  begins  at  some  dis- 
tance above  the  ground,  what  form  does  the 
water  vapor  first  take  ?  14.  What  happens  if 
condensation  continues?  15.  W'here  does  the 
rain  fall?  16.  What  causes  snow?  17.  How 
do  mountains  get  their  moisture?  18.  Which 
will  be  the  dry  side  and  which  the  rainy  side 
of  mountains  ?  19.  What  causes  fog  ?  Dew  ? 
Frost  ? 

20.  W' hat  is  meant  by  weather  ?  21.  Why  does 
our  government  send  out  daily  weather  reports? 


U.  S   Department  of  Affriculture.  Weather  Bureau 


.IM  V.   I*t(  LMIltk 


H<tbM<  |vM*nla> 


FOR     NEW     YORK    CITV     ANp     VICINITY  Lo»mi  Uit  Disbl.  2V 

Unsettled  to-night  and  Friday,  probably  snow  flurries.  Probably  colder 
Friday.  Moderate  winds  mostly  northerly.  Minimunv  temperature  to-night 
about  "16  degrees. 

Easlem  A'cir  Ymk:    Snow  to-night  and  probably  Fnday.     Moderate  variable  winds. 

Eastern  Pmnnyliiima  and  Sew  Jersey.  Unsettled  to-night  and  Kri<iay.  probably  rain  or  snow.  Mod- 
prate  variable  winds. 

('Lmntdicul:     Cloudy  to-night  and  Fnday.  probably  snow.    Fre'h  northeast  winds. 

Slramrrs  departing  to-<iay  for  European  ports  wdl  have  fresh  east  winds  and  overcast  weather  and 
snow  and  rain  to  the  Grand  Banks. 

j\WtkrQst  fUTm  irarnrigf  are  displayed  on  the  New  England  coast  from  Boston  lo  Block  Island 


Fig.  94.     Weather  report,  in  card  form 


so 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


GO\'ERNMENT 

6i.  The  Need  of  Government.  — 
Wherever  people  live  or  work  near  one 
another,  it  is  necessary  to  have  rules, 
or  lazvs,  so  that  each  person  may'  know 
what  is  right  for  him  to  do  and  what  is 
wrong.  That  is  the  reason  why,  in  your 
home,  you  have  fixed  hours  tor  meals, 
for  bedtime,  and  for  getting  up  in  the 
morning.  In  school  also  there  must  be 
rules.  They  tell  what  time  to  begin 
work  in  the  morning  and  when  to  close 
in  the  afternoon ;  and  there  are  rules 
about  being  tardy,  about  learning  les- 
sons, about  recess,  and  about  many 
other  things. 

At  home  your  parents  make  the 
rules  and  see  that  you  obey  them.  At 
school  it  is  the  teacher  who  tells  you 
what  the  rules  are  and  what  you  are 
to  do. 

There  are  also  many  rules  or  laws  that 
must   be  obeyed   by  your   parents,   your 


•  n  It  rr  rt  rt  ir 


iiiilii iiiilii  iiiiiii 
■  iiiiii  IIIIIII  IIIIIII 

iiitni  IIIIIII  IIIIIII 
IIIIIII  IIIIIII  IIIIIII 


Fig.  O.S.     One  corner  of  a  city  park 


teachers,  and  all  other  people.  For  ex- 
ample, when  two  persons  meet  in  walk- 
ing or  riding  or  driving,  each  must,  if 
necessary,  turn  out  to  the  right.  Another 
rule  forbids  anybody  to  drive  an  auto- 
mobile too  rapidly  through  a  city  street. 
Stealing  is  forbidden  as  a  crime,  for 
which  one  may  be  sent  to  prison  or  to  a 
reformatory. 

Who  makes  such  laws  as  these,  which 
must  be  obeyed  by  all  the  people  ^.  In 
our  country  they  are  made  and  enforced 
by  many  officers  who  are  elected  by  the 
people.  Some  elected  officers  appoint 
other  officers  to  help  them.  All  the 
officers  together  are  sometimes  called 
the  government.  The  same  word,  gov- 
ernment, may  mean  also  the  work  done ; 
that  is,  it  may  mean  the  making  and 
enforcing  of  laws. 

A  govcrnmeni  is  needed  to  make  and 
enforce  laws,  and  thus  to  prevent  one  person 
from  injuring  another.  In  our  country 
the  government  is  controlled  by  the  people. 

62.  Local  and  State 

Government.  —  The 
officers  of  a  city  make 
some  rules  that  must 
be  obeyed  in  that 
city,  and  they  also  do 
much  important  work 
for  the  benefit  of  all. 
They  lay  out  new 
streets  and  parks  (Fig. 
95),  and  attend  to 
sucli  things  as  light- 
ing the  streets,  pro- 
viding a  city  water 
supjily,  and  building 
schoolhouses. 

The  chief  officer  of 
a  city  is  called  the 
mayor. 


GOVERNMENT 


51 


Our  country  is  divided  into  forty- 
eight  parts  called  states,  and  each  state 
has  a  government  made  up  of  many 
officers.  It  is  this  state  government 
that  makes  most  of  the  laws  which 
must  be  obeyed  by  all  the  people  of  the 
state. 

This  government  divides  the  state  into 
counties  and  other  districts,  and  decides 
what  officers  shall  be  elected  in  each  of 
them,  and  what  work  they  shall  do.  It 
makes  general  rules  for  the  control  of 
city  governments.  It  decides  how  the 
schools  shall  be  managed,  and  how  long 
they  must  be  open  each  year ;  and  it 
provides  for  the  restraint  of  criminals 
and  for  the  care  of  the  deaf,  blind,  and 
insane. 

The  laws  in  each  state  are  usually 
made  by  men  elected  for  that  purpose 
and  called  the  legislature  of  the  state.  In 
some  states,  however,  the  people  them- 


selves can  make  laws,  by  proposing  them 
and  voting  for  them  at  elections.  The 
chief  officer  of  the  state,  who  sees  that 
the  laws  are  enforced,  is  called  the 
governor.  Officers  who  try  criminals  and 
decide  disputes  are  called  judges. 

The  legislature  meets  in  a  city,  called 
the  capital,  which  usually  can  be  reached 
easily  from  all  parts  of  the  state.  In  this 
city  is  erected  a  fine  building  called  the 
state  capital  (Fig.  96),  in  which  the  legis- 
lature meets,  and  in  which  other  state 
officers  have  their  offices. 

What  is  the  name  of  the  state  in  which 
you  live  ?  Who  is  now  the  governor  of 
your  state  ?     What   city  is  the  capital  ? 

Most  of  our  laws  are  made  by  the  state 
legislatures.  County,  city,  and  other  local 
officers  do  much  of  the  work  of  govern- 
ment, but  they  are  controlled  by  the  state. 
The  most  important  state  officer  is  the 
governor. 


52 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK   AND   LIVE 


Fig.  97.     The  United  States  Congress.     The  President  is  reading  a  message  to  Congress 


63.  The  United  States  Government.  — 
Representatives  are  sent  from  the  dif- 
ferent states  to  the  city  of  Washington, 
which  is  the  national  capital,  to  form  a 
national  Congress  that  makes  laws  for 
the  whole  country  (Fig.  97).  The  high- 
est officer  of  the  national  government  is 
the  President,  who  is  elected  every  four 
years.  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  laws 
of  the  nation  are  enforced,  and  he  ap- 
points many  officers  to  help  him  in  his 
work. 

The  United  States  government  cares 
for   matters   that    are   of   importance   to 


the  people  of  the  whole  country.  It 
carries  on  war  when  necessary  (Fig.  98). 
It  sees  that  mail  is  carried  from  place  to 
place,  that  harbors  and  rivers  are  im- 
proved, that  lighthouses  are  built,  and 
dangerous  rocks  and  shoals  located  and 
marked  (Sec.  53).  The  government  also 
gathers  information  about  the  weather 
and  sends  it  out  to  the  people.  It  coins 
or  prints  money,  and  regulates  commerce 
between  the  states. 

The  states  in  our  country  are  united 
to  form  the  national  government,  or  the 
government    of    the     United    States.      The 


L 


Fig.  98.     United  Stales  soldiers  (artillery;  on  parade 


r  S   W<ir  It,  p 


GOVERN  MEN' 


53 


Fig.  99.     Police  on  parade 


I'"it-'.  lit]-       Paving  a  city  stret  t  wiili  ^r^iiiialt 


chief  officer  is  the  President.  The  Presi- 
dent lives  in  JJ'ashington,  and  Congress 
meets  there.  The  national  government 
issues  money,  carries  the  mail,  and  does 
other  things  to  help  industry.  It  takes 
charge  of  many  matters  of  interest  to  the 
people  of  the  zvhole  country. 

64.  The  Influence  of  Government  on 
Industry.  —  In  the  country  districts, 
there  are  officers  who  protect  the  lives 
and  property  of  the  people.  Other  offi- 
cers have  charge  of  the  roads.  Others 
see  to  it  that  the  people  fence  their  pas- 
tures to  keep  their 
animals  from  doing 
damage  to  the  prop- 
erty of  other  people. 

In  cities,  the 
homes  and  stores 
are  protected  from 
thieves  by  police- 
men (Fig.  99),  and 
from  fire  by  firemen 
(Fig.  100).  The 
streets  are  paved 
(Fig.  loi),  lighted, 
and  cleaned.  Fresli, 
pure  water  is  carried 
through  pipes  under 
the   streets    to    the 


houses  and  factories,  and  waste  is  carried 
away  in  sewers.  All  of  this  work  is  done 
under  the  direction  of  the  city  government 
In  the  state,  the  laws  set  the  time  when 
fish  and  wild  animals  may  be  caught  or 
hunted.  Many  states  have  laws  requir- 
ing that  milk,  butter,  eggs,  meat,  and 
other  foods  be  clean  and  of  good  qual- 
ity. Other  laws  control  the  work  and 
the  charges  of  railroad,  telephone,  and 
lighting  companies.  Some  states  have 
constructed  canals  and  state  roads  to 
aid  and  cheapen  transportation. 

Some  of  the  ways 
in  which  the  na- 
tional government 
aids  business  have 
already  been  men- 
tioned (Sec.  63).  It 
has  also  helped  in 
the  building  of  rail- 
roads, and  has  given 
away  much  public 
land  to  settlers. 

Large  sums  of 
money  have  to  be 
spent  every  year  in 
doing  the  work  of 
local,  state,  and  na- 
tional governments. 


54 


HOW   PEOPLE   WORK  AND   LIVE 


Salaries  must  be  paid  to  officers,  and  the 
governments  must  buy  many  things. 

The  money  is  raised  by  taxes.  That 
is,  persons  are  required  by  hiw  to  pay 
to  the  government  certain  sums  of 
money.  The  amount  that  each  must 
pay  depends  upon 
what  his  business  is, 
and  upon  how  much 
property  and  how 
much  income  he  has. 

In  country  dis- 
tricts, as  well  as  in 
cities,  states,  and  the 
nation,  the  govern- 
ment does  many 
things  to  help  people 
in  their  work. 

65.  Government 
in  Other  Countries. 
—  In  some  of  the 
other  countries  of 
theworld,  as  in  ours, 
the  chief  officers  of  the  government  are 
chosen  by  the  people,  at  elections.  Such 
a  country  is  called  a  republic. 

A  kingdom  is  a  country  whose  highest 
officer  is  a  king.  He  holds  his  place  as 
long  as  he  lives.  When  he  dies,  the 
people  do  not  elect  a  new  king.  In- 
stead, the  office  belongs  to  the  king's 
oldest  son,  or  other  near  relative. 
,  An  empire  is  formed  by  uniting  sev- 
eral countries  under  one  ruler,  whose 
office  descends  from  father  to  son  like 
that  of  a  king.  The  ruler  is  often, 
although  not  always,  called  an  emjieror. 

A  monarchy  is  any  government  under 
a  king,  emperor,  or  other  ruler  who 
holds  his  office  by  right  of  birth.  Kings 
and  emperf)rs  at  one  time  had  much 
more  power  than  they  have  now.  They 
made    the    laws,    appointed     the    other 


Fig.   102.      Meeting  place   of  the   lawmakers  of  Great 
Britain,  a  limited  monarchy 


officers,  and  governed  as  they  pleased. 
Such  a  government  is  called  an  absolute 
monarchy. 

In  nearly  all  monarchies  at  present 
the  people  have  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment,  especially   in   electing   lawmakers. 

Such  a  government 
is  called  a  limited 
monarchy,  because 
the  ruler's  powers 
are  limited. 

A  republic  is  a 
country  governed  by 
officers  who  are  elected 
by  the  people.  A 
monarchy  is  under  a 
king  or  emperor  who 
inherits  his  office  and 
rules  for  life.  In 
a  limited  monarchy, 
however,  the  people 
have  a  share  in  the 
government. 
Review  of  Sections  61  to  65.  —  i .  Why  is  it  nec- 
essary to  have  rules  or  laws  ?  2.  What  rules  do 
we  have  at  home  .^  In  school?  3.  Who  sees  to 
it  that  we  obey  the  home  rules  .^  The  school 
rules  ?  4.  What  is  meant  hy  government  ? 
5.   How  are  officers  chosen  in  our  country  ? 

6.  What  kind  of  work  is  done  hy  a  city  govern- 
ment ?  7.  How  many  states  are  there  in  our 
country  ?  8.  What  does  a  state  government 
do  ?  q.  Where  does  a  state  legislature  meet  ? 
10.   Wiiat  is  the  chief  officer  of  a  state  called  ? 

II.  What  is  the  name  of  the  national  capital? 
12.  What  is  the  name  of  the  national  body  of 
lawmakers?     13.  Who    is    our    President    now? 

14.  What  does  the  United  States  government 
do  ? 

15.  How  do  the  laws  help  tin-  people  and  their 
industries  in  the  country?  In  the  city?  In  the 
state?  In  the  nation?  16.  Why  is  money 
needed  in  order  to  carry  on  any  goveriuncnt  ? 
17.   How  is  it  raised  ? 

iS.  What  is  a  republic?  .\  kingdom?  An 
emjiire  ?  A  monarchy  ?  19.  What  is  the  dif- 
ference between  a  limited  and  an  absolute  mon- 
archy ? 


I 

J 


Fig.  103.     The  horizon,  where  the  sky  and  sea  siem  to  meet 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 

(If  required  by  the  local  course  oj  study  Sections  66-Sj  should  be  deferred  lilt  the  time  prescribed  in  the  course.) 


FORM  AND   ROTATION  OF  THE 
EARTH;    FINDING   DIRECTIONS 

66.  What  we  See  of  the  Earth.— Wher- 
ever we  may  hapi^cii  to  be,  we  can  see 
only  a  small  part  of  the  land  and  water 
that  make  up  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

From  the  shore  of  the  ocean  or  of  a 
great  lake,  we  can  look  far  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  to  where  the  sky  seems 
to  bend  down  to  meet  it.  The  surface  of 
the  water  seems  almost  level,  and  the  sky 
looks  like  the  inside  of  a  great  bowl  that 
has  been  turned  over  it.  The  line  where 
the  earth  and  sky  seem  to  meet,  surrounds 
us  in  a  great  circle  and  is  called  the 
horizon  (Fig.  103). 

In  a  country  where  there  are  no  hills 
or  mountains,  the  land  seems  to  stretch 
away  to  the  horizon  as  a  level  i)lain. 

In  a  hilly  or  mountainous  country,  when 
we  stand  on  a  high  hill  we  can  see  much 
further  than  we  can  from  a  plain.  Even 
then  the  horizon  always  surrounds  us. 

We  can  see  only  a  small  part  of  the  earth 
at  a  time.  The  earth  and  sky  seem  to  ineet 
at  the  horizon. 


67.  The  Size  of  the  Earth. — A  great 
many  persons  have  traveled  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  and  from  them  we  have 
learned  many  things  about  it.  We  know 
that  it  is  made  up  of  land  and  water,  and 
that  there  is  much  more  water  than  land. 
There  are  many  islands  in  the  great  ocean, 
but  most  of  the  land  surface  is  in  seven 
great  masses  called  continents. 

The  continents  are  very  large,  so  large 
that  at  their  broadest  parts  it  would 
take  a  man  many  weeks  to  walk  across 
them.  If  a  man  could  walk  all  the  way 
around  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  thirty 
miles  a  day,  the  journey  would  take 
more  than  two  years. 

The  earth  is  nearly  25,000  miles  around. 
Almost  three  fourths  of  its  surface  is  made 
up  of  the  waters  of  the  great  ocean.  The 
rest  is  land,  and  most  of  the  land  is  in 
seven  continents. 

68.  The  Form  of  the  Earth.  —  Although 
the  earth  is  very  large  and  only  a  small 
part  of  it  can  be  seen  at  a  time,  people 
have  learned  its  shape.  It  is  round  like 
a  ball.  We  may  take  a  ball,  or  sphere, 
to  represent  the  earth,  and  on  it  we  may 


55 


56 


THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 


^S^  A  o  (■  i:  A  -v  .^--^l^k  .'•:■ 


Fig.  104.     Western  Hemisphere 


'^5y    -  ^^'«  ©cj'i-' 


AM.AUl 


Fig.  105.     Eastern  Hemisphere 


mark  the  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  that 
are  land.  Figures  104  and  105  show 
opposite  sides  of  a  ball,  or  globe,  marked 
in  this  \va3^  Notice  how  much  more 
water  there  is  than  land.  Ask  your  teacher 
to  show  you,  on  your  schoolroom  globe, 
the  spot  that  represents  the  place  where 
you  live.  Put  your  linger  there,  and  then 
move  it  around  the  globe.  You  see  how 
people  may  travel  "around  the  world." 

Five  hundred  years  ago  most  people 
knew  only  a  small  part  of  the  earth,  and 
believed  it  to  be  flat.  One  of  the  men  who 
helped  to  explore  the 
other  parts  of  the  earth 
was  Christopher  Colum- 
bus (Fig.  106).  He  be- 
lieved he  could  reach 
India  by  sailing  toward 
the  west  ;  and  in  1492 
he  persuaded  the  queen 
of  Spain  to  help  him. 
Locate  Spain  and  India 
on  the  gloi)e.  Columbus 
sailed  from  Spqin  across 


the  ocean  about  where  the  broken  line  is 
drawn  in  Figures  104  and  105.  He  believed 
the  earth  to  be  round,  but  he  thought  the 
distance  to  India  much  shorter  than  it 
really  is,  in  the  direction  he  traveled. 
Why  did  he  not  reach  India  .?  What  body 
of  land  did  he  come  to  instead  .''  Colum- 
bus never  got  beyond  the  land  which 
people  later  called  America,  or  the  New 
World,  but  he  died  believing  that  he  had 
reached  a  land  near  India. 

Another  man  who  helped  to  prove  that 
the  earth  is  round  was  Magellan  (Fig.  107). 
Trace  the  route  followed 
by  his  ships  as  shown  by 
the  arrows  in  Figures 
104  and  105.  One  of  his 
ships  finally  came  again 
to  the  port  from  which 
it    started. 

77/r  earth  is  round  like 
a  ha//.  On  a  g/ohe  the 
/and  and  water  can  be 
shown .  People  can  travel 
around  the  world. 


THE   ROTATION  OF    THE   EARTH 


57 


69.  The  Rotation  of  the  Earth.  —  Al- 
thoui^h  tlic  earth  seems  to  us  to  stand  still, 
it  really  is  in  motion.  It  whirls  around, 
or  rotates,  like  a  basehall  thiown  with  a 
spinning  motion.  The  line  around  which 
it  turns,  called  its  axis,  runs  throu_u;h  the 
center.  In  a  globe  there  is  a  wire  in  place 
of  the  axis,  but  the  axis  of  the  earth  is 
like  that  of  a  baseball  turning  in  the  air. 
The  points  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  at 
the  ends  of  the  axis  are  called  poles. 
There  are  two  poles,  the  North  Pole  and 
the  South  Pole.  Find  the 
poles  on  a  globe  and  in 
Figures  no  and  in.  It 
takes  twenty-four  hours 
for  the  earth  to  make  one 
turn  on  its  axis. 

The  sun  is  a  white-hot 
mass  a  million  times  as 
large  as  the  earth.  From 
the  sun  the  earth  receives 
its  light  and  heat.  The 
part  of  the  earth  turned 
toward  the  sun  has  light, 
or  day.  The  part  turned 
away  from  the  sun  has  darkness,  or  night. 
You  can  see  why  this  is  by  turning  the 
globe  in  front  of  a  light  in  a  room  from 
which  the  sunlight  has  been  shut  out. 
Only  one  half  of  the  globe  is  lighted  at  a 
time  ;  the  other  half  is  in  darkness. 

Notice  on  the  globe  the  spot  that  repre- 
sents the  place  where  you  live.  Place  the 
globe  so  that  this  spot  is  away  from  the 
light,  and  then  turn  the  globe  slowly  in 
the  direction  opposite  to  the  motion  of 
the  hands  of  a  watch.  When  the  light 
first  touches  the  spot,  it  shines  there 
just  as  the  sun  shines  on  your  home  in 
the  morning.  As  you  continue  to  turn 
the  globe,  point  out  the  positions  that 
represent  noon,  sunset,  and  midnight. 


The  earth  turns  around,  or  rotates,  on  its 
axis.  This  rotation  fixes  the  position  of  the 
North  and  South  Poles.  It  also  causes  day 
ami  night. 

70.  Direction  on  the  Earth.  —  When 
persons  travel  toward  the  North  Pole  from 
any  i)lace  on  the  earth,  they  are  going 
north.  If  they  travel  toward  the  South 
Pole,  they  are  going  south.  From  the 
North  Pole  all  places  on  the  earth  are 
south.  From  the  South  Pole  all  places  are 
north.     The  shortest  possible  lines  from 


Fig.   108.     Meridians  and  parallels; 
North  Pole  at  top  of  the  diagram 


Fig.   109.     Meridians  and  parallels; 
North  Pole  turned  forward 


one  pole  to  the  other,  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  are  north  and  south  lines,  and  are 
called  ?neridtans. 

The  direction  in  which  the  earth  rotates 
is  east,  and  the  opposite  direction  is  zvest. 
Every  east  and  west  line  crosses  the  merid- 
ians at  right  angles.  The  east  and  west 
line  around  the  earth  halfway  between  the 
poles  is  the  Equator.  Many  other  east 
and  west  lines  may  be  drawn  on  a  globe. 
On  any  east  and  west  line  all  points  are 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  Equator. 
That  is,  every  such  line  is  parallel  to  the 
Equator,  and  all  east  and  west  lines  are 
called  parallels.  Find  meridians  and  par- 
allels on  your  globe  and  in  Figures  108 
and  109. 


58 


THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 


.    s  -v^y 


*      I!      I     ' 


Fig.  110.     Northern  Hemisphere 


Fig.  111.     Southern  Hemisphere 


If  the  earth  were  cut  into  two  parts 
along  the  Equator,  it  would  be  divided 
into  two  half  spheres,  or  hemispheres. 
One  of  these  is  called  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  (Fig.  no),  and  the  other  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  (Fig.  in).  The 
earth  may  be  divided  also  by  meridians 
into  so-called  Eastern  and  Western  Hemi- 
spheres (Figs.  104,  105). 

Tozvard  the  North  Pole  is  north.  Toward 
the  South  Pole  is  south.  Meridians  are  lines 
running  north  and 
south.  The  direction 
in  which  the  earth 
rotates  is  east.  The 
Equator  and  other 
parallels  are  lines 
running  east  and 
west. 

71.  Easy  Ways  of 
Finding  Direction. 
— On  March  21  and 
on  September  22  the 
sun  rises  in  the 
morning  almost  cx- 


tions  by  the  i  isiii^  buu 


actly  in  the  east.  If  at  sunrise  on  those 
days  you  stretch  out  your  arms  (Fig.  112), 
and  stand  with  your  right  hand  toward  the 
sun,  your  left  hand  w  ill  he  i)ointing  west. 
You  will  be  facing  toward  the  north,  and 
your  back  will  be  turned  toward  the  south. 
If  you  watch  the  shadows  of  objects  on 
a  bright,  sunny  day,  you  will  notice  that 
they  are  long  in  the  early  morning  and 
late  evening,  and  shortest  at  noon.  The 
shortest    shadow   of    the    day    lies    in    a 

north  and  south  di- 
rection. By  means 
of  this  shadow  a 
north  and  south 
line  can  be  drawn 
(Fig.  113).  If  you 
stand  on  such  a  line 
and  face  toward  the 
north,  your  right 
hand  will  be  toward 
the  east,  your  left 
hand  toward  the 
west,  and  your  back 
toward  the  south. 


1  ;.       1  1  ;       !■  iiicliii;;  direc- 
tions by  a  shadow  at  noon 


DIRECTIONS 


59 


An  easy  way  of 
finding  direction  on 
a  clear,  starry  night 
is  to  look  for  the 
North  Star.  Any 
one  walking  toward 
this  star  is  going 
north.  The  star  is 
near  the  Big  Dipper 
(Fig.  114).  See  if 
you  can  find  it  on 
some     clear     night. 


72.  How  to  Locate 
Places  on  the  Earth. 
— It  you  wish  to 
direct  a  stranger  to 
some  place  in  a  city 
or  village,  you  will 
give  him  the  names 
of  the  streets  which 
cross  each  other  near 
it.  For  example, 
you  may  say:  "The 
place    is   near    State 


After  the  North  Star  has  been  found,  how  Street  and  Randolph  Street."     It  is  easy 

would  you  locate  east,  south,  and  west  ^  to  locate  places  that  are  near  the  crossing 

A  long  time  ago  some  one  discovered  of  streets  and  roads, 

that  it  is  possible  to  find  direction  by  using  The  meridians  and  parallels  about  which 

an  instrument  called  a  compass  (Fig.  115).  you  have  been  studying  are  lines  crossing 

The  important  part  of  this  instrument  is  a  at    right    angles,  like   many  city  streets, 

special  kind  of  small  steel  bar  called  a  mag-  It  is  possible  to  show  some  of  them  on  a 

netic  needle,  so  hung  that  it   can   swing  globe  and  by  their  help  to  locate  any  place 


easily.  The  needle  points 
nearly  toward  the  north  in 
most  parts  of  the  world,  and 
is  used  by  sailors  in  guiding 
their  ships  and  by  persons 
traveling  in  the  woods. 

The  four  directions  north, 
east,  south,  and  west  are  the 
principal,  or  cardinal,  points. 
The  direction  halfway  be- 
tween    east     and     south     is 


on  the  earth.  The  meridians 
and  parallels  are,  of  course, 
not  actual  marks  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  any  more 
than  are  the  boundary  lines 
between  many  city  or  village 
lots. 

It  is,  however,  always  pos- 
sible to  find  the  boundary 
lines  by  measuring,  and  men 
have  also  learned  how  to  find 


southeast;    halfway    between    south    and  the  Equator  and  to  tell  how  far  any  place 

west  is  southzvest;    halfway  between  west  is  north  or  south  of  it.     By  selecting  one  of 

and  north  is  northwest;  and  halfway  be-  the  meridians  as  a  line  from  which  to  start, 

tween  north  and  east  is  northeast.  they  can  also  tell  how  far  a  place  is  east  or 

In  what  direction  is  your  home  from  the  west  of  this  first  or  prime  meridian, 

school?     See  if  you  can  point  in  all  of  the  The    prime    meridian     generally    used 


directions  shown  in  Figure  115. 

Direction  may  be  found  by  noticing  where 
the  sun  rises  or  sets  on  March  21  or  Septem- 
ber 22,  by  finding  the  direction  of  the  short- 


passes  through  the  great  city  of  London. 
Find  this  meridian  on  your  globe. 

As  parallels  are  circles,  and  meridians 
are  half  circles,  we  must  know  how  to  find 


est  shadow,  by  locating  the  North  Star,  and     particular  points  on  a  circle.     For  meas- 
ly using  the  compass.  urement  every  circle  is  divided  into  360 


6o 


THE   EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 


equal  parts,  called  de- 
grees. In  circles  of 
different  sizes,  the  de- 
grees of  one  circle  are 
longer  or  shorter  than 
those  of  another,  but  a 
degree  is  always  just 
3^  of  its  own  circle 
(Fig.  1 1 6).  Find  on  a 
globe  the  parallel  which 
has  the  longest  degrees. 
As  meridians  are  all  of 
the  same  size,  the  de- 
grees on  the  meridians 
are  of  equal  length. 

Any  place  can  be  located  as  a  certain 
number  of  degrees  north  or  south  of  the 
Equator.  This  we  call  the  latitude  of  the 
place.  Every  place  is  a  certain  number 
of  degrees  east  or  west  of  the  prime 
meridian.     This  we  call  its  longitude. 

Places  on  the  earth  are  located  as  a  cer- 
tain number  of  degrees  {or  parts  of  degrees) 
north  or  south  of  the  Equator,  and  east  or 
west  of  the  prime  meridian. 


Fig.  116.     Divisions  of  circles 


Review  of  Sections  66  to 

72.  —  I.  How  much  of  the 
earth's  surface  can  you  see 
at  a  time  ?  2.  What  do  we 
call  the  line  where  the  earth 
and  sky  seem  to  meet  ? 

3.  Is  there  more  land  or 
water  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face.' 4.  Into  how  many 
large  masses  is  most  of  the 
land  divided  ? 

5.  What  is  the  form  of 
the  earth  f  6.  What  voyage 
did  Christopher  Columbus 
take,  and  what  did  he  find  ? 
7.  What  journe\'  did  the 
men  with  Magellan  make  .i* 
8.  What  is  the  axis  of 
the  earth  ?  9.  Where  are 
10.  How  long  does  it  take  the 
earth  to  turn  once  on  its  axis?  11.  When  do 
we  have  da^'  ?     When  do  we  have  night.' 

12.  What  direction  is  north  ?  South.'  13.  What 
direction  is  east  ?  West .'  14.  What  are  me- 
ridians .'  What  are  parallels?  15.  What  is  the 
Equator?  16.  What  is  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere ?     The  Southern  Hemisphere  ? 

17.   How  ma}-  the  direction  north   be  found? 
18.   How  may  the  other  directions  be  found  ? 
19.   How     may     the     earth     be     represented  ? 

20.  How    do    we    locate    places    on    the    globe  ? 

21.  What  is  a  degree? 


the  two   poles  ? 


;  ""^      '-■ 


Fig.  1 1  / .     /\ii.iiiiic  Ocean 


Fig.  118.     Pacific  Ocean 


LAND  AND   CLIMATE 


6i 


LAND  AND 
CLIMATE 

73.   The      Conti- 
nents and   Oceans. 

— Figure  104  sliows 
the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. In  this 
hemisphere  is  the 
New  World  which 
Columbus  discov- 
ered. The  north- 
ern mass  of  land  is 
the  continent  of 
North  America,  of 
which  our  own 
country,  the  United 
States,    is    a    part. 

The  southern  land  mass  is  the  continent 
of  South  America.  The  portion  of  the 
great  ocean  east  of  America  is  called  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  that  on  the  west  is 
the  Pacific  Ocean  (Figs.  117  and  118). 

Figure  105  shows  the  other  half  of  the 
globe,  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  or,  as  it 
is  often  called,  the  Old  World.  At  the 
north  (Fig.  119)  are  the  two  continents  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Asia  is  the  largest  of 
all  the  continents.  South  of  Europe  and 
southwest  of  Asia  is  the  continent  of 
Africa.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  hemi- 
sphere and  south  of  the  Equator  is  the 
continent  of  Australia,  the  smallest  of  the 
continents.  South  of  Asia,  and  between 
Africa  and  Australia,  is  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Figure  no  shows  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere. In  this  hemisphere  is  the  greater 
])art  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth.  It 
contains  all  of  North  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia,  and  parts  of  South  America  and 
Africa.  The  ocean  about  the  North  Pole 
is  called  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The    Southern     Hemisphere    is    shown 


in  Figure  in.  It 
contains  Australia, 
the  larger  part 
of  South  America, 
and  a  part  of  Afri- 
ca, but  most  of  its 
surface  is  water. 
Explorers  have  re- 
cently found  that 
there  is  a  large  land 
mass,  the  Antarctic 
Continent,  around 
the  South  Pole,  but 
this  land  is  covered 
with  ice  and  is 
surrounded  by  the 
cold  waters  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean. 
Locate  the  seven  continents  and  five 
oceans  on  the  globe. 

Of  the  continents  Asia  is  the  largest; 
Africa  is  next  in  size;  then  come  North 
uimerica,  South  America,  the  Antarctic 
Co7itinent,  Europe,  and  Australia.  The 
ocean  is  really  all  one,  but  its  parts  have 
been  given  different  names.  The  largest 
part  is  the  Pacific  Ocean;  then,  in  order  of 
size,  come  the  Atlantic,  the  Indian,  the 
Arctic,  and  the  Antarctic. 

74.  The  Distribution  of  Population. — 
The  polar  regions  are  so  cold  that  not 
many  people  can  live  there.  The  regions 
near  the  Equator  are  much  warmer,  and 
people  can  live  there  without  much  work. 
In  some  rainy  regions  near  the  Equator 
trees  and  other  plants  grow  so  close  to- 
gether that  they  form  a  dense  forest,  or 
jungle,  in  which  only  a  few  people  can 
live.  In  the  very  dry  regions  called 
deserts,  not  many  plants  will  grow,  except 
where  water  can  be  brought  in  or  where 
there  are  oases.  Consequently  the  deserts 
are  inhabited  by  only  a  few  people. 


62 


THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 


Fig.  120.    Winter 

1 

S^-"  "^^  •'-'--"- -^'* 

Fig.  121.     Summer 

Find  the  hot  and  the  cold  regions  on 
your  globe. 

Between  the  cold  polar  regions  and  the 
hot  equatorial  regions,  there  are  regions 
that  are  moderately  warm,  or  that  are 
cold  in  the  winter  (Fig.  120)  and  warm  in 
the  summer  (Fig.  121).  These  are  the 
temperate  regions,  where  most  of  tlie 
people  of  the  world  live.  It  is  in  these 
temperate  regions  that  most  of  the  agri- 
culture, lumbering,  mining,  fishing,  and 
manufacturing  of  the  world  are  carried  on. 

The  temperate  regions  of  the  continent 
of  North  America  are  occupied  by  the 
United  States,  the  southern  part  of 
Canada,  and  the  northern  part  of  Mexico. 
Why  are  we  interested  in  this  part  of  the 
world  ?  Find  these  countries  on  the  globe. 
Nearly  all  of  Europe  and  most  of  Asia  are 
included  in  the  temperate  regions.  The 
temperate  part  of  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere includes  the  southern  parts  of 
South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia. 

In  the  polar  regions  it  is  too  cold  for 
people  to  live  comjortahly.  In  many  parts 
of  the  equatorial  regions,  fetv  people  can 
live  because  of  wet  jungles  and  dry  deserts. 
There  are  more  people  in  the  temperate 
regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  than 
in  other  parts  of  the  world. 


75.  Why  Some  Regions  are  Hot,  Some 
Cold,  and  Others  Temperate. — The  earth 
receives  from  the  sun  not  only  light  (Sec. 
69),  but  also  heat.  Notice  how  warm  it 
is  at  different  times  during  the  day.  You 
will  find  that  the  early  morning,  w'hen  it  is 
just  beginning  to  be  light,  is  a  cool  part 
of  the  day.  During  the  morning  it  grows 
warmer,  and  a  little  after  noon  it  usually 
becomes  as  warm  as  it  will  be  during  the 
day.  Later  it  grows  cool  again,  and  the 
night  is  usually  the  coldest  part  of  the 
twenty-four  hours. 

It  is  warmest  about  noon  because  the 
sun  is  highest  in  the  sky  at  that  time. 
The  sun's  rays  of  light  and  heat  then 
come  from  a  direction  most  nearly  over- 
head. A  ray  from  directly  overhead  is 
called  a  vertical  ray.  Vertical  rays  warm 
the  earth's  surface  much  more  than  the 
slanting  rays,  such  as  we  receive  in  the 
morning  and  evening. 

In  the  i)arts  of  the  world  near  the  Equa- 
tor, the  sun  is  directly  overhead,  or  almost 
directly  overhead,  during  the  middle  of 
every  day  in  the  year.  That  is  why  the 
equatorial  regions  are  hot. 

The  polar  regions  are  cold  because  the 
sun's  rays  there  are  very  slanting,  even  at 
noon  in  summer.     Near  the  poles  during 


LAND   AND   CLIMATE 


63 


the  winter  there  is  no  sunshine  at  all  for 
several  weeks  or  months,  and  it  is  then 
intensely  cold. 

In  the  temperate  regions  the  sun  is 
never  directly  overhead.  It  rises  higher 
in  the  sky  during  the  long  summer  days 
than  it  does  during  the  short  winter  days. 
It  is  for  these  reasons  that  the  temperate 


represent  parallels  of  latitude  on  the 
earth's  surface,  as  in  Figure  108.  As 
you  look  at  each  diagram,  remember  that 
the  earth  is  all  the  time  turning  on  its 
axis,  one  rotation  in  twenty-four  hours. 

On  June  21  {A,  Fig.  122)  the  North 
Pole  is  turned  toward  the  sun,  and  all  the 
earth  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  is  in  sun- 


regions  are  moderately  warm,  or  are  warm     light  during  the  whole  day  of  twenty-four 


in  summer  and  cold  in  winter. 

It  is  easy  to  remember  that  the  sun  rises 
CO  different  heights  in  the  sky  in  summer 
and  in  winter,  and  also  in  the  equatorial, 
temperate,  and  polar  regions ;    but  it  is 


hours,  though  the  sun's  rays  are  very 
slanting.  The  region  south  of  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle  is  in  continuous  darkness. 
On  December  21  (C,  Fig.  122)  the  North 
Pole  is  turned  away  from  the  sun ;    the 


hard  to  understand  why  the  sun  does  this,     region  within  the  Arctic  Circle  is  in  dark- 


There  are  two  reasons:  (i)  Besides  turn- 
ing on  its  axis,  the  earth  is  steadily  moving 
forward  in  a  yearly  journey  around  the 
sun.  This  motion  is  called  its  revolution. 
The  earth  revolves  around  the  sun  once 
in  a  year.  (2)  The  earth's  axis  points 
always  in  the  same  direction  —  namely, 
toward  the  North  Star. 

In  Figure  122  the  earth  is  shown  in  four 
positions  in  its  orbit,  or  curved  path 
around  the  sun.  The  earth  is  shown 
large  so  that  we  can  see  how  it  is  lighted 
at  different  seasons.  In  reality,  the  sun  is 
mucli  larger  than  the  earth,  and  is  so  far 
away  that  the  earth's 
orbit  is  many  thou- 
sand times  longer 
than  is  shown  on  the 
diagram. 

The  straight  line 
NS  represents  the 
earth's  axis ;  notice 
its  position,  always 
pointing  in  the  same 
direction.  Five  oth- 
er straight  lines,  on 
each  of  the  four  dia- 
grams of  the  earth, 


ness,  and  that  within  the  Antarctic  Circle 
is  in  light.  These  two  regions  are  called  the 
Frigid  Zones.  Frigid  means  frozen.  The 
zone  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Circle  is  the 
North  Frigid  Zone,  and  the  one  bounded 
by  the  Antarctic  Circle  Is  the  South  Frigid 
Zone.  Find  these  two  circles  on  the  globe. 
On  June  21  the  sun's  vertical  rays  are 
on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  north  of  the 
Equator  {A,  Fig.  122)  ;  and  on  Decem- 
ber 21  they  are  on  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn (C,  Fig.  122).  On  all  other  days  of 
the  year  the  vertical  rays  are  somewhere 
between    these    two    tropics,    or    circles. 


March  21 


°rth 


VERTICAL    RAYS 


September  22 


Fig.   122.     Positions  of  the  earth  at  different  seasons 


64 


THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 


i 


Find  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn  on  the  globe.  The  region 
between  them  is  the  Torrid  Zone.  Torrid 
means  hoi. 

The  region  between  the  Arctic  Circle 
and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  the  North 
Temperate  Zotie.     It  is  the  zone  in  which 


we  live.  Between  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn and  the  Antarctic  Circle  is  the  South 
Temperate  Zone.  Temperate  means  mod- 
erate; that  is,  not  very  hot  and  nol 
very  cold.  But  in  the  Temperate  Zones 
most  of  the  land  has  warm  summers  and 
cold  winters. 


Climatic 


124 

Regions 


thu  m.<n.  workb. 


LAND   AND   CLIMAIE 


65 


On  March  21  (Z),  Fig.  122)  and  on 
September  22  {B,  Fig.  122)  the  vertical 
rays  of  the  sun  are  on  the  Equator,  and 
sunhght  reaches  as  far  as  both  poles.  All 
places  on  the  earth  arc  in  daylight  twelve 
hours  and  in  darkness  twelve  hours. 

Fr(Mn  March  21  to  September  22  the 
Northern  Hemisi)here  has  more  sunlight 
than  the  Southern  Hemisphere  ;  the  days 
there  are  longer  than  the  nights,  while  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere  the  nights  are 
longer  than  the  days. 

From  September  22  to  March  21  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  has  more  sunlight 
than  the  Northern  ;  the  days  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  are  longer  than  the 
nights,  while  the  nights  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  are  longer  than  the  days. 

The  longest  day  of  the  year  is  on  June 
21  (Northern  Hemisphere)  or  on  Decem- 
ber 21  (Southern).  The  lengths  of  day 
and  night  change  slowly  from  day  to  day 
as  the  earth  moves  forward  in  its  ()rl)it. 

y^t  all  places  in  the  Torrid  Zone  the  sun 
is  nearly  overhead  at  noon,  and  sometime 
during  the  year  is  directly  overhead.  In  the 
Temperate  Zones  the  sun  is  never  directly 
overhead,  but  there  is  some  daylight  and  some 
darkness  every  twenty-four  hours  in  the 
year.  In  the  Frigid  Zones  the  suns  rays 
are  very  slanting,  and  there  is  a  midsummer 
period  of  coyitintious  daylight,  and  a  mid- 
winter period  of  continuous  darkness,  last- 
ing, at  different  places,  two  or  more  days,  or 
several  weeks,  or  even  several  months. 

76.  The  Climates  of  the  Continents.  — 
At  many  places  in  our  own  and  other 
countries,  the  weather  (Sec.  60)  for  each 
day  is  observed,  and  a  record  is  made  of 
the  temperature  and  rainfall.  When 
these  weather  records  have  been  made  for 
a  long  time  they  may  be  averaged  to  show 
the  average  weather,  or  climate.     If  in  any 


region  most  of  the  days  are  cold  and  dry, 
then  we  say  that  the  climate  of  that  place 
is  cold  and  dry.  We  can  also  study  the 
records  for  each  month  by  themselves ; 
and  we  find  that  the  climate  is  different  in 
different  parts  of  the  year. 

The  two  hemispheres  in  Figure  124 
have  been  colored  to  show  the  average 
temperatures  of  different  regions  of  the 
earth.  The  regions  that  are  hot  every 
montli  in  the  year  arc  heavy  red.  Regions 
that  are  cold  most  of  the  time  arc  heavy 
blue.  The  other  parts  of  the  world,  marked 
with  the  lighter  colors,  are  temperate  for 
at  least  a  part  of  the  year.  The  light  blue 
regions,  however,  are  cold  for  more  than 
half  of  the  year,  and  the  light  red  regions 
are  hot  for  more  than  half  of  the  year. 

Notice  how  crooked  the  lines  are  that 
separate  these  different  regions.  Com- 
pare them  with  the  regular  lines  separating 
the  zones  in  Figure  123.  There  are  two 
reasons  why  the  regions  in  Figure  124  are 
of  irregular  shape:  (i)  In  each  continent 
there  are  mountains  and  high  plains, 
where  it  is  colder  than  on  the  lowlands 
(Sec.  25).  (2)  Land  masses  are  heated 
and  cooled  more  quickly  than  water 
masses.  Therefore  the  lines  between  dif- 
ferent climatic  regions  are  more  irregular 
on  the  continents  than  on  the  oceans. 

In  our  own  continent,  we  find  that  the 
northern  parts  are  in  the  cold  region.  The 
temperate  region  extends  farther  north  on 
the  west  side  of  the  continent  than  it  does 
on  the  east.  The  hot  region  includes  the 
southern  part  of  the  continent,  especially 
the  lowlands  near  the  coast.  Compare 
this  with  the  Torrid  Zone  (Fig.  123). 
Nearly  all  of  Europe  and  most  of  Asia 
are  in  the  temperate  regions,  while  large 
parts  of  Africa,  South  America,  and  Aus- 
tralia are  in  the  hot  region. 


66 


THE    EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 


The  climate  of  a  place  is  its  average 
weather.  Temperatures  taken  for  a  long 
time  in  different  parts  of  the  zvorld,  zvhen 
averaged,  show  that  the  hot,  temperate,  and 
cold  regions  are  not  exactly  the  same  as  the 
zones. 

'j'j.  The  Influence  of  Climate  on  Prod- 
ucts.— You  have  learned  that  the  growth 


Fig.   125.     Freight  for  foreign  countries 


of  plants  depends  on  temperature,  mois- 
ture, and  soil  (Sees,  ii,  12).  Both  the 
plants  and  the  animals  of  one  region 
differ  greatly  from  those  of  other  regions 
that  are  much  warmer  or  colder. 

As  you  study  about  the  different  coun- 
tries of  the  world  you  w  ill  learn  of  their 
products.  From  part  of  the  world  come 
the  fine  furs  from  animals  that  live  only 
where  it  is  very  cold.  From  another 
part  of  the  world  come  fruits  and  spices 
that  can  grow  only  where  it  is  hot.  The 
people  of  some  countries  grow  wheat  for 
their  bread.  In  some  other  countries,  too 
warm  or  too  wet  lor  wheat,  the  people 
live  mostly  on  rice. 

People  in  all  i)arts  of  the  world  exchange 
with  one  another  the  siir|)lus  |)roducts  of 
their  own  countries  (Fig.  125). 


The  products  of  the  different  countries  of 
the  world  are  not  alike.  Each  country 
raises  the  plants  and  animals  that  are  best 

suited  to  the  climate. 

Review  of  Sections  73  to  77. — i.  Where  is 
North  America  .?  South  America  .?  The  Atlantic 
Ocean  t  The  Pacific  Ocean  ?  2.  Where  is 
Europe?     Asia?     The  Arctic  Ocean?     3.  Where 

is  Africa  ?      Australia  ?      The 

Indian  Ocean  ? 

4.  Where  is  the  Antarctic 
Continent  ?  The  Antarctic 
Ocean  ? 

5.  Why  do  not  many 
people  live  in  the  polar  re- 
gions ?  Why  not  in  some  of 
the  regions  near  the  Equator  r 
6.  Where  do  most  of  the 
people  of  the  world  live  ? 

7.  How  is  the  earth 
heated  ?  8.  Why  are  the 
equatorial  lowlands  always 
hot  ?  9.  Why  are  the  polar  re- 
gions cold  ?  10.  What  is 
meant  by  the  earth's  revolu- 
tion ?  How  long  a  time  is  re- 
quired for  one  revolution  ?  11. 
In  what  part  of  the  year  is  the 
North  Pole  turned  toward  the  sun  ?  Away  from 
the  sun  ?  1 2.  In  which  zone  do  the  sun's  rays  strike 
the  earth  squarely?  13.  In  which  zones  are  the 
sun's  ra\'s  most  slanting?  14.  How  does  the  sun 
shine  on  the  Temperate  Zone  ?  15.  What  are  the 
bountlarii-s  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone? 

16.  What  is  weather?  Climate?  17.  Why 
are  some  places  colder  or  warmer  than  other 
places  in  the  same  latitude  ? 

iS.  Wh\'  are  not  the  same  kinds  of  plants  and 
animals  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ?  19.  If 
one  country  raises  more  wheat  than  it  needs,  what 
is  done  with  the  surplus  ? 

MAPS 

78.  Representing  Large  Things  by 
Small  Drawings. — Our  earth  is  a  sphere, 
and  is  best  represented  by  a  globe.  Large 
globes  are  difficult  to  handle,  yet  even  the 
largest  ones  are  much  too  small  to  show 
well  all  the  features  of  the  earth's  surface. 


MAPS 


67 


o 
a 


Fig.  126.     Plan  of  a  schoolroom;  scale,  9  feet  to  1  inch 


Drawings  such  as  Figures  59  to  65   are 
used  to  show  parts  of  the  earth. 

Some  drawings  of  objects  are  made  full 
size  ;  that  is,  as  large  as  the  objects  them- 
selves. Usually,  however,  a  drawing  is 
much  smaller.  A  certain  measure  on  the 
drawing  stands  for  a  much  larger  one  on 
the  object.  One  inch  in  the  drawing  may 
stand  for  a  foot,  a  yard,  a  mile,  or  any 
other  chosen  length.  When  such  a  unit 
of  length  is  used  for  all  parts  of  a  drawing, 
we  say  that  the  drawing  is  made  to  scale. 

Drawings  made  to  scale  are  used  to 
represent  farts  of  the  earth's  surface. 

79.  Making  a  Plan  of  a  Schoolroom. — 
The  drawings  on  this  page  (Figs.  126-12S) 
are  all  of  the  same  schoolroom,  but  are 
made  on  different  scales.  They  show  the 
outlines  of  the  room,  desks,  and  platform, 
and  are  called  plans.  The  scale  used  is 
given  below  each  plan.  Measure  the 
drawings  and  see  if  you  can  tell  how  long 
and  how  wide  the  room  is. 

Make  a  plan  of  your 
own  schoolroom.  To  do 
so  it. will  be  necessary  to 
measure  its  length  and 
width,  and  find  the  posi- 
tion and  size  of  each  of 
the  doors  and  windows  and 


of  the  desks.  Everything 
must  be  drawn  to  the  same 
scale.  Make  your  first  plan 
on  the  scale  of  two  feet  to  an 
inch  ;  that  is,  let  one  inch 
represent  two  feet.  Make 
another  plan  on  the  scale  of 
four  feet  to  one  inch. 

Choose  another  scale  and 
make  a  plan  of  your  school 
building,  school  yard,  and  the 
near-by  streets. 

The  same  object  may  be 
drawn  to  different  scales.  The  size  and  de- 
tail of  the  drawing  depend  on  the  scale  chosen. 
80.  Choosing  a  Map  Scale. — Drawings 
of  the  earth's  surface  are  called  maps,  and 
are  made  on  many  different  scales.     The 


a 


Fig.   127.     Same  schoolroom;  scale,  12  feet  to  1  inch 


'D 


Fig.  128.     Scale,  18  feet  to  1  inch 


scale  chosen  is  small  for  some  maps  be- 
cause they  are  to  be  printed  on  the  pages 
of  a  certain  book.  For  other  maps  the 
scale  may  be  larger,  to  show  more  details 
than  could  be  shown  on  a  small  map. 
The  scale  used  in  the  construction  of  a 
map  is  usually  shown  some- 
where on  the  map.  Find 
it  in  Figure  135, and  Figure 
147.  This  scale  may  be 
shown  by  a  line  marked  off 
in  lengths  representing  10 
miles,  100  miles,  or  the  like 
(Fig.  147)  ;    or  it  may  be 


T 


n 


68 


THE   EARTH   AS  A   WHOLE 


given  as  so  many  miles  to  one  inch  (Fig. 
135).  Figures  145,  147,  144,  150,  show 
maps  of  the  same  region  on  different  scales. 
The  scale  used  in  maps  depends  upon  the 
size  of  the  paper  on  which  the  map  is  to  be 
printed,  and  upon  the  number  of  facts  to  he 
shown. 

81.  Map  Symbols. — In  drawing  the 
plan  (or  map)  of  a  schoolroom  or  other 
small  area,  it  is  usually 
enough  to  draw  the  out- 
lines of  the  objects  rep- 
resented (see  Fig.  126). 
Sometimes,  however,  it 
is  necessary  to  show 
which  of  the  buildings 
are  churches  or  schools, 
which  streets  have  rail- 
ways, and  other  facts. 
For  this  purpose  special 
marks  or  symbols  are 
used.  Churches  may  be 
shown  by  a  cross  (>!<), 
and  railways  by  a  line 

( )  or  by  a  line 

with      short      crossing 
marks  ("" ' ). 

To  be  able  to  tell  just 
what  maps  show,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  meanings  of  the  symbols.  Turn  to 
Figure  134.  Here  color  is  used  to  show 
height.  Note  the  colors  used  for  different 
heights,  and  tell  the  heights  of  the  land 
at  different  points  as  shown  by  the 
colors. 

Objects  are  sometimes  shown  by  their  out- 
lines, but  on  maps  many  facts  may  be 
shown  by  special  marks  or  symbols. 

82.  Direction  on  Maps.  —How  do  you 
find  direction  on  the  earth  (Sec.  71)  .^ 
Wlu-n  a  ma|)  is  |)riiitfd  in  a  book  or  hung 
on  the  wall,  it  is  usually  so  placed  that  the 
part  of  the  ma[)  showing  the  north  is  to- 


^  ,SOUTH~~\ 

ir~ 

/^  NORTH 

/                r' 

0 

2 

fc^^ 

^1 

r4^ 

0 

c 

X 

^^  1 

tA 
0 

C 
-1 
X 

1 

Fig.  129.     Directions  on  a  map 


ward  the  top.  On  maps  showing  a  very 
small  part  of  the  earth,  north  is  usually 
toward  the  top,  east  toward  the  right, 
south  toward  the  bottom,  and  west  to- 
ward the  left  of  the  map.  But  this  is 
not  true  of  all  maps. 

The  best  way  to  find  directions  on  maps 
is  by  noticing  the  meridians  and  parallels 
(Sec.  70),  if  they  are  shown.  You  re- 
member that  meridians 
are  north  and  south 
lines  drawn  on  the  globe 
from  pole  to  pole,  and 
that  the  parallels  are 
east  and  west  lines 
crossing  the  meridians 
at  right  angles.  Nearly 
all  maps  of  large  areas 
show  parts  of  the  me- 
ridians and  parallels, 
usually  as  curved  lines. 
On  such  maps  north 
and  south  will  be  along 
the  meridians,  and  east 
and  west  along  the 
parallels  (Fig.  129). 
Find  these  four  direc- 
tions on  different  parts 
of  a  large  map  of  Asia. 

Most  maps  show  only  a  part  of  the 
earth's  surface,  but  all  parts  of  the  sur- 
face are  curved  like  a  piece  of  orange  peel 
or  a  part  of  a  rubber  ball.  If  we  try  to 
press  the  piece  of  orange  peel  out  flat,  it 
w  ill  tear  along  the  edge  (Fig.  130).  Even 
the  piece  of  rubber  ball  must  stretch  along 
its  outer  edge  when  it  is  flattened. 

As  maps  are  printed  on  flat  pieces  of 
paper,  map  makers  have  learned  how  to 
draw  the  parallels  and  meridians  so  that 
the  continents  and  countries  will  look 
very  much  as  they  do  on  the  globe.  But 
this  means  that  they  are  either  stretched 


MAPS 


69 


Fig.  130.     Orange  peel  pressed  flat 


on   the  edges  or   pressed 
together  near  the  center. 

Dirt-ction  is  best  s/iozvu 
on  maps  by  the  use  of  me- 
ridians and  parallels. 

83.  Different  Kinds  of 
Maps. —  1  ho  two  kinds  of 
maps  most  used  are  the 
physical  map  and  tlic 
political  map.  Figure  134 
is  a  physical  map  of  North 
America,  and  Figure  135 
is  a  pohtical  map  of  the 
same  continent. 

Physical  maps  show  what  we  call  the 
physical  features  of  a  country.  These  in- 
clude the  coast  lines,  lakes,  and  rivers, 
the  lowlands,  and  the  highlands.  From 
such  a  map  one  can  usually  tell  at  once 
whether  the  country  shown  is  a  plain  or  a 
mountain  region.  If  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous, the  map  shows  which  parts  are 
higher  and  which  lower ;  so  that,  from  a 
large-scale  physical  map,  one  could  find 
the  passes  through  which  roads  and  rail- 
roads might  most  easily  be  built  across  the 
mountains.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  physi- 
cal features  that  you  can  find  on  Figure 
134,  and  describe  the  symbols  by  which 
they  are  shown. 

Political  maps  also  show  certain  physi- 
cal features,  such  as  coast  lines,  lakes, 
and  rivers.  They  are  used  especially, 
however,  to  show  (i)  the  different  coun- 
tries and  states  into  which  the  continents 
are  divided,  with  the  boundary  lines  that 
separate  them  ;  and  (2)  the  cities,  roads, 
railroads,  canals,  lighthouses,  and  other 
things  that  people  have  built. 

Most  of  these  things  are  shown  by  sym- 
bols. The  symbol  for  a  boundary,  show- 
ing where  the  land  belonging  to  one  coun- 
try or  state  stops  and  that  belonging  to 


another  begins,  is  usually  a 

broken  line  ( 

or ).         Of 

course  there  is  no  line 
really  drawn  on  the 
ground,  hut  the  two  coun- 
tries often  j)ut  up  markers 
(Fig.  131)  at  short  dis- 
tances from  one  another 
to  mark  the  position  of 
the  boundary.  The  sym- 
bol used  for  a  city  or  vil- 
lage is  usually  a  dot  (•), 
a  dot  with  a  circle  around 
it,  0,  or  a  star,  *. 

Review  of  Sections  78  to  83. — i.  How  is  the 

earth  best  represented  .''  2.  Why  do  we  not  al- 
ways use  globes  to  show  the  different  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface.''  3.  What  is  meant  by  a  full-size 
drawing  ?  4.  Why  are  drawings  usually  made  to 
scale  ? 

5.  Why  are  not  all  maps  drawn  on  the  same 
scale  .?  6.  In  what  ways  may  the  scale  of  a  map  be 
shown  '^ 

7.  Name  some  symbols  used  in  making  maps, 
and  tell  what  they  represent. 

8  .  How  do  you  find  direction  on  the  earth  ? 
9.  How  is  direction  shown  on  maps  ?  10.  Why 
are  not  the  maps  printed  in  books  of  the  same 
shape  as  those  on  the  globe  .'' 

II.  What  do  physical  maps  show?  12.  What 
do  political  maps  show  ? 


*>'Sv- 


5-^=^ 


^ 


I'   .*<  (iiulu'jicnt  Surrey 


Fig.   131.     A  boundary  marker 


NORTH    AMERICA 


THE   CONTINENT 

84.  Position. — We  speak  of  the  con- 
tinent of  North  America  as  our  continent 
because  it  is  the  one  on  which  we  Hve. 
For  this  reason  it  is  the  most  interesting 
to  us  and  is  the  first  of  the  great  con- 
tinents of  the  world  that  we  shall  study. 

Look  at  North 
America  on  your  school 
globe.  Figure  133  is  a 
photograph  of  a  globe 
taken  to  show  this  conti- 
nent and  the  oceans 
and  lands  that  are 
near  it.  Study  also 
Figures  104,  no,  132, 
134,  and  135.  You  will 
notice  that  all  of  North 
America  is  north  of  the 
Equator,  but  even  its 
most  northern  island 
does  not  reach  to  the 
North  Pole.  What 
ocean  is  west  of  North 
America .''  What  ocean  is  east  of  it  I 
What  ocean  is  north  of  it .'' 

85.  Size. — North  America,  as  we  have 
learned,  is  larger  than  any  other  continent 
except  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  so  wide  that 
fast  trains  traveling  day  and  night  take 
four  days  in  going  from  the  city  of  New 
York  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  San 
Francisco  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  very 
fast  walker  once  walked  across  the 
United  States  from  the  Pacific  to  the 
Atlantic  in  91  days.  This  included,  of 
course,  the  time  spent  in  eating  and 
sleeping. 


Fig.   133.      North  AiiiLiicLi  and  the 
bordering  waters 


86.  Political  Divisions. — The  continent 
is  divided  into  different  countries  as 
shown  in  Figure  135.  Most  of  the 
northern  part  is  included  in  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  and  belongs  to  Great  Britain, 
one  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  The 
island  of  Newfoundland,  off  the  eastern 
coast,  also  belongs  to  Great  Britain, 
while  the  large  island 
of  Gree7ila7id  belongs 
to  Denmark,  another 
of  the  countries  of 
Europe.  West  of  Can- 
ada is  Alaska,  which 
belongs  to  the  United 
States. 

Tlie  United  States, 
our  own  country,  occu- 
pies the  central  part  of 
the  continent.  South 
of  it  is  Mexico,  a  country 
one  fourth  as  large  as 
ours,  and  Central  Ayner- 
ica,  a  group  of  small 
countries  occupying  the 
most  southern  part  of  the  continent. 
One  of  these  countries,  named  Pa7iama, 
occupies  the  isthmus  that  connects  North 
America  with  South  America.  The 
United  States  now  controls  a  strip  of 
land,  ten  miles  in  width,  across  the 
isthmus.  A  great  canal,  through  which 
the  largest  ships  can  pass  from  ocean  to 
ocean,  has  been  constructed  through  this 
strip  by  our  government.  Find  it  on  the 
map. 

Southeast  of  the  United  States,  and 
east  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  is  a 
group  of  islands  known  as  the  West  Indies. 


71 


■(ORTM   POLE 


Physical 

North  America 


■00    IM     IMO 


■  LCVATIONS  IN  FEET.  Dfpths  in  Falhon», 

i^M        OVER  eOOO  r  I  OtnlOO 

HB  aOOO  TO  MOO    r~      1      too  to  1000 

[ I  10O0  TO  2000    r  '      1   tOOO  to  tOOO 

{Z       1        0  TO  1000   f  _"    _  i       »»#r  tOOO 
HE  UNO  tElOW  MA  LIVCl 


t   MArTHtWI*MC  KTHflUf*  WOilM)  •UFPAtO.  N.   *. 


■rr'M 


SOUTH  A^MERICA 

>TTHeW8-N0ATHRUP  WDHKB.  BUFFALO.  H.  ' 


73 


74 


NORTH   AMERICA 


Fig.   136.     In  the  cold  northern  part  of  the  continent 


ing,  and  since  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  Alaska  and  north- 
western Canada,  many  miners 
have  gone  into  those  regions. 
In   southern    Canada   and 
northern    United   States   the 
summers  are  warm  and  com- 
fortable, and  the  winters  cold. 
Crops  grow  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  cattle  graze  freely 
over   the   great    pastures,  or 
ranges.      This    is    the    time 
when    most   of   the   outdoor 
work    is    done.     During   the 
\\inter  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow  for  many  days  or 
Review  of  Sections  84  to  86.— I.  Why  is  North     for  many  weeks   (Sec.  9).      This  part  of 
America   called   our  continent.?     2.   What   large     ^\-^q    continent    belongs    to    the    temperate 
bodies   of  water  wash   its   shores?     3-   To   what  ■  ^^^    j^^^    ^^^^^  ,g    ^j^^^ 

other  continent  is  it  joined  :     Hv  what :  f       '  o\ 

i,T,  .  1  '        ^u       M    .1      Other  part  (ritr.  130). 

4.    What    continents    are    larger    than    JNorth  f         \     t>      j    ^ 

America?       What      continents      are       smaller?  In     the     most     southern     parts     of    the 

5.  How  long  does  it  take  a  fast  train  to  cross  United  States  and  of  Mexico,  and  in  the 

from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  ?  countries    lying    still    farther    south,    the 

6.   Name  the  large  countries  into  which  the  ^^,^^^]^^j.    [^    ^o^    most    or    all    of    the    time 
continent  is  divided.     7.  In  which  country  do  we  s        r^      •  11  r     1 

live?     8.   Where   are  the  small   countries  of  the  (^'g-    1 24).      Durmg  several    hours  of   the 

continent?    9.  To  what  country  does  Canada  hot  summer  days  the  people  can  do  but 
belong?    Alaska?    Newfound-  little  work.     Where  there 

land  ?    Greenland  ?     10.  Where     , ^^     j^  ^j^^^,^,^  moisture,  plants 

87.    The    Cold   and    the  ^^<               ''^*'iBC3SR^  ^^^^  ^^  '^  "°^  always  easy 

Warm  Regions. — From  the  ""■^■^ttC^Sli*  '■'^  clear  the  fields.     Even 

position   of   North  Amer-  ^^^^^hPi  "'^■Bn  ^'^ter  the  fields  have  been 

ica  we  should  expect   the  /^nv^flA^BTBl  cleared  of  wild  growth,  it 

northern  part  of  the  con-  '  ^aa, iLT^m il  '^  often   difficult  to   keep 

tinent  to  be  cold,  the  cen-  'S^-  ^1^     dE«  A«jm1i  them   clear,    so   that    the 

tral  part  warmer,  and  the  ^M^.  ^  ^Bmm tim \  plants  that  are  needed  can 

southern    part    hot.     And  3^ *\^HLjWWaim fC^  -2  be  cultivated, 

so  they  are.  r^T  TJ  "^^^V^.vjWB "  ^^i'          Hie     central     part     of 

In  the  cold  regions  of  the  Jl            f    jL       J    Kr  Mexico  is  a   highland,  or 

north   (Fig.    136)   there  is  --f  *._  ^'^l&  -^  \f^:M  plateau,     that     is     much 

little   agriculture.     A   few  .   -^       '  AHfr-^SlL'^^'^^ka  cooler    than    the    rest    of 

Indi.ins  and   Kskimos  live  Fig.  137.   in  the  warm  .southern  j]^^,    country,    and    is   the 

part  of  the  continent  -'  .        ,  .    ,  , 

there  by  hunting  and  hsh-     I I     only  part  that   is  thickly 


are  the  West  Indies  ? 


SURFACE,   RAINFALL 


75 


^_jMod«...ly  dense 

I  ISpjrae 

I  I  Little  or  no  populatioo 


Fig.  138.     Density  of  population,  North  America 


populated  (Fig.  138).  Farther  north,  in 
the  cooler  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  there  are  fewer  people  in  the 
highlands  than  in  the  lowlands. 

88.  Surface. — Turn  to  the  physical 
map  of  North  America  (Fig.  134).  Notice 
carefully  the  colors  of  the  map  and  the 
meanings  of  these  colors,  as  shown  in  the 
lower  1-eft-hand  corner.  There  are  two 
great  highland  areas.  The  higher  and 
longer  highland  is  known  as  the  Cordil- 
leras. It  is  on  the  western  side  of  the 
continent  and  runs  northwest  and  south- 
east for  nearly  its  entire  length.  Its 
western  edge  is  close  to  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
especially  at  the  north.  It  is  broadest  in 
the  United  States,  where  it  is  about  one 
third  the  width  of  the  continent. 

The  other  highland  area,  called  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  is  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  continent.  It  is  not  so  long 
or   so   broad   or   so  high  as  the  western 


highland.  It  runs  northeast  and  south- 
west. For  much  of  its  length  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  ocean  by  a  broad,  gently 
sloping  plain.  Both  the  Cordilleras  and 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  are  made  up 
of  many  different  ranges,  each  of  which 
has  its  own  name. 

Between  the  highlands  is  a  great  cejitral 
plain,  which  extends  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Find  it 
on  the  map.  Find  also  the  Great  Lakes, 
near  the  middle  of  the  plain.  North 
and  west  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  a  slight 
elevation  that  divides  the  great  central 
plain  into  two  parts.  The  rivers  of  the 
northern  part  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  Hudson  Bay.  The  southern  part  is 
drained  southward  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  eastward  through  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  into  the 
Atlar.tic  Ocean. 

Review  of  Sections  87  and  88. — i.  What  parts 
of  North  America  are  cold  ?  2.  What  parts  are 
hot?  3.  Where  are  the  temperate  regions? 
4.  Where  do  most  of  the  people  live  ? 

5.  Name  the  two  great  highland  regions  of  the 
continent.  6.  Which  of  them  is  the  larger? 
7.  Where  is  the  smaller  ?  8.  Where  is  the  great 
central  plain  ?  9.  How  is  it  divided  into  northern 
and  southern  parts  ? 

89.  RainfaU. — All  the  moisture  that 
falls  to  the  earth  is  called  rainfall,  no 
matter  whether  it  falls  as  rain  or  as  snow. 
You  have  already  learned  that  most  of  the 
moisture  in  the  air  comes  from  the  ocean 
(Sec.  58).  The  rainfall  of  every  con- 
tinent depends  on  the  winds  that  blow 
over  it  from  the  ocean.  The  rain  or  snow 
may  fall  on  the  sides  of  mountains  against 
which  the  winds  blow,  because  the  moun- 
tains force  the  winds  to  higher  levels 
(Sec.  59).  It  may  fall  also  on  other  parts 
of  the  land,  especially  where  the  winds 
move  northward  toward  the  colder  regions. 


76 


NORTH   AMERICA 


gradually  packed 
and  frozen  into  ice. 
Large  masses  ot  such 
ice,  called  glaciers 
(Fig.  142)  move 
\ery,  very  slowly 
down  the  slopes  of 
the  land. 

In  the  far  north, 
especially  in  Alaska 
and  Greenland,  some 
glaciers  reach  the 
ocean.  Immense 
pieces  called  icebergs 
(Fig.  141)  break  off 
and  ffoat  away.  The 
largest  icebergs  may 

Figure  139  shows  the  direction  of  the  pre-  drift  a  long  distance  before  they  are  en- 
vailing  winds  during  the  summer  and  tirely  melted.  They  are  greatly  dreaded 
during  the  winter ;  and  Figure  140  shows  by  sailors,  for  ships  sometimes  run  into 
the  different  parts  of  the  continent  that  them  in  the  fog  or  darkness.  The  glaciers 
have  heavy  rainfall  and  light  rainfall.  on   mountains   far  from   the  ocean  move 


Fig.  139.  Prevailing  winds  of  North  America  Fig.  140.     Rainfall  of  North  America 


As  winds  blow  from  the  Pacific  Ocean 
across  the  Cordilleras,  much  rain  falls  on 
the  western  side  of  the  mountains.  Mois- 
ture from  the  Ciulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean   falls   in   the  eastern   part 


slowly  down  the  mountain  valleys  until 
the  ice  is  melted  by  the  warmth  of  the 
lower  levels.  Where  such  a  glacier  melts 
it  forms  tlie  source  of  a  mountain  stream, 
go.    Rivers    and    Lakes. — The    Missis- 


of  the  United   States,  with  the  heaviest     sippi  River   flows    from    north    to    south 
rains  in  the  south.  through  the  southern  part  of  the  great  cen- 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  continent,     tral  plain.     Read  again  Section  37,  where 
and  on  the  high  mountains,  a  i)art  of  the     the  Mississippi  river  system  is  described, 
moisture  falls  as  snow.     During  the  warm  The  largest  of  the  western  tributaries 

months  of  the  year,     | 1     is  the  Missouri.     If 

most   of    this    snow  we  take  the  Missouri 

melts  and  flows  awa\'  River  as   the  upper 

in  streams.  *.  part    of    the    main 

In     the     extreme  J  i^'  '  stream,   in    place  of 

north     and     in     the       ,,„.^  JlJl^^lL^l,.,   _^^mm.mmm       ^^^^'     "PP"^''     Missis- 

^^^^^HH|^|^^H|^HHHI||^H  the  Missouri- 

there  on  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^S^^^^  Mississippi  the 

grf>un(l         the  year       ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^SI^^Btaut-<.l!j|       l<*i^g(^'''t  the 

(Fig.    14).     In   such  E-      ,^,     A       u         ..        .u  world.       The     most 

^       ^         ^  Fig.   141.     An  iceberg  m  the  northern  ocean 

regions  the  snow  is     I 1 1     imjjortant  eastern 


RIVERS   AND    LAKES 


77 


tributary  of  the  Mississippi  is  the  Ohio. 
Fiiul  these  rivers  on  your  map.  i'lie 
Ohio  River,  and  the  Mississippi  lor  most 
of  its  course,  are  deep  enough  for  the  use 
of  steamboats  (Sec.  51). 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  great  central 
plain  there  are  several  large  rivers.  For 
the  most  part  they  follow  the  general 
slope  of  the  land,  and  flow  from  the 
warmer  southern  to  the  colder  northern 
regions.  During  the 
w  inter  they  are  usu- 
ally frozen  their  entire 
length.  When  spring 
comes,  they  thaw  out 
first  at  the  south.  As 
the  water  is  not  able 
to  escape  through  the 
ice-choked  channels 
to  the  north,  it  spreads 
out  over  the  land  in 
great  floods. 

Most  of  the  rivers 
in  the  eastern  part  of 
North  America  are 
short,  because  the 
mountains  are  so  near 
the  ocean.  A  few  of 
them,  such  as  the  Hudson  and  the 
Susquehanna,  have  cut  deep  valleys 
through  the  mountains.  Many  of  the 
rivers  have  waterfalls  and  rapids  which 
furnish  power  for  mills  and  factories.  On 
some  of  the  rivers,  boats  carry  freight 
and  passengers,  and  railroads  have  been 
built  through  many  of  the  valleys. 

The  largest  and  longest  of  the  eastern 
water  routes  extends  through  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  and  the  Great  Lakes. 
Ship  canals  (Sec.  51)  have  been  dug 
around  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
from  Lake  Ontario  to  Lake  Erie  past 
Niagara  Falls,  through  the  shallow  waters 


connecting  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Huron, 
and  around  the  rapids  connecting  Lake 
Huron  and  Lake  Superior.  Many  ships 
can  now  pass  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to 
distant  points  on  Lake  Superior  and  Lake 
Michigan. 

Two  of  the  western  rivers,  the  Colorado 
and  the  Columbia,  rise  in  the  higher 
eastern  parts  of  the  Cordilleras.  For 
much  of  the  distance  to  the  Pacific  Ocean 

they  flow  through  the 
deep  canyons  which 
they  have  cut.  Many 
shorter  streams  flow 
down  the  western 
slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains into  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  On  a  few  of 
the  western  rivers, 
boats  carry  freight 
and  passengers,  and 
through  some  of  the 
valleys  railroads  have 
been  built  across  the 
western  highlands. 

Review  of  Sections 
89  and  90. —  I.  Where-  is 
the  rainfall  heavy  in 
North  America?  2.  Where  is  it  light.?  3.  How 
are  glaciers  formed  ?  4.  Where  are  they  found  ? 
5.  What  are  icebergs  .'  6.  Why  are  they  danger- 
ous to  ships  .'' 

7.  What  river  system  drains  the  eastern  Cor- 
dilleras, the  western  Appalachians,  and  the 
southern  part  of  the  great  central  plain  .?  8.  On 
what  river  nearest  your  home  do  boats  carry 
passengers  and  freight  ?  9.  Why  are  there  spring- 
time floods  in  the  far  north  .?  10.  What  use  is 
sometimes  made  of  rapids  and  falls  in  streams  ? 

II.  Why  do  railroads  often  follow  river  valleys 
(Sec.  49)  ?  12.  For  what  reasons  do  people  dig 
canals  (Sec.  51).'  13.  How  has  a  safe  route  for 
ships  been  made  through  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
St.  Lawrence  River .'' 

14.  Where  do  the  Colorado  and  Columbia 
rivers  rise?  15.  What  kind  of  valleys  do  they 
have .'' 


\' 


-S^    U 


\  V)  Y 


l\ 


Fig.  143 
Relief    Map 

United  States 

Scale  of  statute  Mllca 

aoo  3' 

262   MILES   TO   one   INCH 

Location  of  Innd  below  sea  level  is  shown 

by  arrows 
Lowlands  are  shown  in  green 
Higher  lands  are  shown  in  yellow  or  buff 
Great  elevationc  ere  shown  in  purple 
Snow-covered  peaks  and  slopes  are  ancolored 
Other  mountain  slopes  are  shaded 
Water  is  shown  io  blue 

COPYRIGHT,  BY  AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


**^*'>y     "^ 


l>«.«*TT-E*'i-'«0»rTwRu^   WOUKt,    BUWAW,  H.  Yk 


79 


8o 


THE    UNITED    STATES 


OUR  COUNTRY 

91.  The  Boundaries  of  the  United 
States. — The  United  States  occupies  the 
central  part  of  North  America.  It  is 
bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Athnitic 
Ocean  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  North  of  the  United  States  is 
Canada,  and  south  of  it  is  Mexico. 
On  Figures  135  and  150  trace  the 
boundaries  of  the  United  States. 

Important  land  boundaries  are 
carefully  located  and  marked  by 
monuments  of  stone  or  metal  set  up 
at  short  distances  along  the  line 
(Fig.  131).  Some  boundary  lines 
are  long  and  straight,  or  nearly 
straight,  like  the  one  between 
Canada  and  northwestern  United 
States,  and  like  many  of  those  be- 
tween different  states  (Pig.  150). 
Such  lines  cross  mountains,  valleys,  plains, 
and  rivers.  Other  boundary  lines  may 
follow  the  crest  of  a  mountain  range, 
or  the  divide  between  rivers  which  flow 
in  opposite  directions.  Find  such  bound- 
ary lines  in  Figure  150. 

What  water  boundaries  separate  the 
United  States  from  Canada .''  From 
Mexico  ?  Where  two  countries  or  states 
are  separated  by  a  river  the  boundary 
may  follow  one  bank  of  the  stream  ;  but 
it  is  usually  located  in  midstream.  If 
there  are  many  islands,  as  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  the  boundary  winds  in 
and  out  so  that  some  of  them  belong  to 
one  country  and  some  to  the  other. 

Where  large  lakes  lie  between  two 
countries,  as  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  the  line  is  generally  drawn 
so  as  to  divide  each  lake  equally  between 
the  two  countries. 


Boundary  markers  are  seldom  set  up 
in  lakes  and  rivers.  Such  boundaries  are 
marked  only  on  maps  (Fig.  150),  but  it  is 
always  possible  to  find  the  boundary  line 
by  measuring  from  the  shore. 

92.  Industrial  Regions. — Read  again, 
in  Sections  87,  88,  and  89,  about  the  high- 
lands and  lowlands,  and  about  the  tem- 


I  I  Little  raiii  '  ~' 

1__     j  Light  raliia 

Moderate  raiD.i 
Moderately  beav; 
Heavy  raioa 


Fig.  145.    Rainfall  of  the  United  States 


perature,  winds,  and  rainfall  of  the  United 
States. 

The  crop  that  will  grow  best  in  any 
place  will  depend  chiefly  upon  the  tem- 
perature, the  rainfall,  and  the  soil  of  that 
place.  As  our  country  is  very  large,  and 
as  some  parts  are  much  higher  than  others, 
the  different  sections  have  very  different 
temperatures.  Figure  145  shows  how 
much  the  rainfall  varies.  As  a  result  of 
these  differences  of  temperature  and  rain- 
fall, many  different  crops  are  raised  in 
the  United  States.  Our  country  pro- 
duces each  year  more  food  than  our  own 
people  need.  The  surplus  is  sold  in  other 
countries. 

Figure  144  shows  the  chief  industrial 
regions  of  the  United  States.  The  names 
of  important  crops  raised  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  country  are  printed  on  the 
map.     What  are  some  of  these  ? 


81 


S; 


83 


84 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Grass  will  grow  in  many  places  where 
there  is  not  enough  rainfall  for  agricul- 
ture, and  also  where  the  soil  is  thin  or 
difficult  to  cultivate.  Such  regions  are 
used  for  grazing.  The  chief  grazing 
regions  of  the  United  States  are  in  the 
western  half  of  the  country. 

Scattered  through  the  mountains  and 
in  parts  of  the  great  plains  are  mines  of 
coal,  iron,  gold,  copper,  silver,  zinc,  lead, 
and  other  minerals.  These  mining  regions 
are  shown  on  the  map  by  shaded  spots, 
or  by  the  letters  G,  C,  S,  Z,  L.  The 
coal  and  iron  mines  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. The  coal  is  used  to  heat  houses 
and  factories,  to  supply  power  for  turn- 
ing the  machinery  of  mills,  and  for  run- 
ning railroad  trains.  The  iron  is  used 
to  make  all  kinds  of  iron  and  steel 
articles,  from  a  needle  to  a  plow  or  a 
battleship. 

Along  the  shores  of  both  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific  oceans,  along  part  of 
the  Gulf  coast,  and  in  the  waters  of 
the    Great    Lakes,    there    are    important 


^--X^ 


•CALC  or  MIICS 


0        IM       MO      IM 


Fig.    147.     Kuilrouds  of  the  United  Slates 


fisheries.  There  are  salmon  fisheries  in 
the  streams  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
sponge  fisheries  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  near-by  waters.  Large  numbers 
of  oysters,  clams,  and  lobsters  also  are 
taken  from  the  ocean  waters. 

One  of  the  most  important  industries 
in  which  the  people  of  our  country  are 
engaged  is  manufacturing.  This  indus- 
try can  be  carried  on  only  where  there  are 
raw  materials  to  manufacture,  or  where 
they  can  be  easily  obtained.  The  fac- 
tories are  generally  located  near  water- 
falls, coal  fields,  or  natural  gas  wells  that 
supply  the  power  to  drive  the  machinery. 
Most  of  them  are  in  cities  (Sec.  45). 

As  much  raw  material  is  brought  to  fac- 
tories from  a  distance,  and  as  manufac- 
tured goods  are  sent  to  distant  markets, 
some  means  tor  carrying  these  things  must 
be  provided.  The  great  manufacturing 
districts  have  many  railroads  to  connect 
the  cities  with  the  seaports  and  with  the 
other  parts  of  the  country  (Fig.  147). 
Figure  144  shows  that  the  chief  manu- 
facturing district  of 
the  United  States  is 
in  the  northeast- 
ern part.  Here  are 
made  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  boots 
and  shoes,  and 
many  articles  of 
wood,  and  of  iron, 
steel,  and  other 
metals.  Many 
great  manufactur- 
ing cities,  however, 
are  not  included 
in  this  region. 
Some  of  these  also 
arc  shown  on  the 
map. 


J 


\ 


-l 
tx 


^. 


INDUSTRIAL   REGIONS,   HISTORY 


85 


Some  raw  materials,  such  as  wool, 
rubber,  and  hides,  come  from  distant 
parts  of  the  world  to  the  seaports  of  the 
North  Atlantic.  From  the  same  ports 
the  manufactured  goods  are  sent  out  to 
the  people  of  other  parts  of  the  world. 
This  trade  with  other  countries  has 
helped  to  make  the  northeastern  part 
of  our  country  a  great  manufacturing 
region. 

Review  of  Sections  91  and  92. — i.  What  ocean 
borders  the  United  States  on  the  east  ?  On  the 
west  ?  2.  What  rivers  and  lakes  form  part  of  the 
northern  boundary  of  our  country.?  3.  What 
river  and  gulf  form  a  part  of  the  southern 
boundary  ?     4.  How  are  boundary  lines  marked  ? 

5.  Why  are  different  crops 
raised  in  different  parts  of  the 
country .'  6.  Name  some  of 
the  important  crops  and  tell 
where  they  are  raised. 

7.  Where  are  the  chief 
grazing  districts  ?  8.  Why  are 
such  regions  not  used  for  agri- 
culture ? 

9.  Where  are  some  of  the 
important  coal  and  iron  mines 
m  our  country  ? 

10.  Where  are  the  chief  fish- 
ing grounds  ? 

11.  Where  is  the  chief 
manufacturing  section  of  our 
country  ?  1 2.  Why  is  it  lo- 
cated where  it  is?  13.  Of 
what  use  are  the  seaports  ? 


93.  Our  Early  History. — The  early  white 
settlers  of  both  North  and  South  America 
found  the  country  inhabited  by  people 
who  were  very  different  from  those  living 
in  Europe.  As  these  natives  were  first  seen 
by  Columbus  when  he  thought  he  was 
near  India,  he  called  them  Indians.  They 
have  been  known  by  this  name  ever  since. 
Usually  a  number  of  families  lived 
together  as  a  tribe.  In  the  hot  countries 
the  Indians  used  little  clothing,  but  in 
the  cold  regions  they  wore  clothing  made 
from  the  skins  of  animals.  For  food  they 
raised  small  crops  of  corn,  beans,  and 
squashes ;  they  gathered  wild  berries, 
nuts,  and  roots  ;  and  they 
hunted  and  rtshed. 

Some  of  the  Indians 
lived  mainly  by  hunting 
and  fishing,  and  they  often 
wandered  from  one  hunt- 
ing ground  to  another. 
They  made  fishhooks  out 
of  bones;  and  they  hunted 
with  bows  and  arrows. 
They  lived  in  tents,  called 
tepees  or  wigwams,  made 
of  skins  placed  over  poles 
(Fig.  149).  Such  homes 
were  easy  to  move. 


HuTtnu  of  American  EtUiioloOiJ 

Fig.   149.     Indian  tepee 


100°  Longltudo 


86 


"m  Gr»«nwich 


87 


88 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Fig.   151.     Pueblo 


Burtajt  of  Amtrican  El/inolosu 
Fig.   152.     Indian,  or  red  man 


Other  tribes  of  Indians  had  learned  to 
depend  more  on  farming  than  on  hunting. 
They  built  much  better  homes  than  the 
wigwams  of  the  wandering  tribes.  Some 
made  their  houses  of  logs  or  bark,  with 
roofs  of  brush,  grass,  or  sods.  Some,  in 
the  dry  southwestern  part  of  our  coun- 
try, lived  in  pueblos,  or  village  houses, 
built  of  bricks  dried  in  the  sun  (Fig.  151). 
In  these  dr}'  regions  the  Indians  had  even 
dug  ditches  to  use  in  watering  their  crops. 

The  Indians  were  tall  and  erect,  with 
straight  black  hair  and  skin  of  reddish 
brown.  On  account  of  the  color  of  their 
skin  they  were  called  red  men.  As  the 
people  of  the  world  are  divided  into  large 
groups,  or  races,  and  the  races  are  named 
by  the  color  of  the  skin,  the  Indians  are 
called  the  red  race.  Most  of  the  people 
of  Europe  and  of  North  America,  as  well 
as  many  people  in  other  ])arts  of  the  world, 
belong  to  the  zchite  race. 

During  the  settlement  of  our  country 
there  were  frecjuent  wars  between  the  white 
settlers  and  the  Indians,  and  many  cruel 
deeds  were  done  on  both  sides.  The 
white  settlers  soon  outnumbered  the 
Indians  and  drove  them  farther  and 
farther  west.     In  later  years,  our  govern- 


ment set  aside  lands,  or  reservations,  on 
which  some  of  their  descendants  are  now 
living.  The  Indians  of  to-day  have 
learned  the  ways  of  white  people,  and 
most  of  them  live  by  farming  or  by  rais- 
ing cattle,  sheep,  and  horses. 

The  early  white  settlers  in  our  country 
came  from  several  different  nations  in 
Europe.  Most  of  them,  however,  came 
from  England  ;  and  after  several  wars  the 
English  conquered  the  settlements  of 
other  nations  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America.  Each  group  of  settlements  with 
a  government  of  its  own  was  called  a 
colony.  All  the  colonies  between  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Hudson  Bay  were 
for  a  time  under  the  control  of  Great 
Britain,  tiu-  kingdom  of  which  England 
is  a  part. 

In  1776  thirteen  of  the  British  colonies 
combined  and  decided  that  they  would 
no  longer  he  British  colonies.  They 
wished  to  rule  themselves  and  be  inde- 
pendent. There  was  a  long  war,  and 
when  it  was  ended  the  colonies  were  in- 
dependent. Each  colony  was  formed  into 
a  state,  and  these  states  were  united 
under  one  general  government,  which  was 
called  the  United  States. 


[iisiom' 


89 


Fig.   153.     White  man 


Fig.   154.     Black  man 


.->! 


Fig.  155.     Yellow  man 


But  not  all  the  people  of  our  country 
are  descended  from  these  first  early 
settlers.  Many  Europeans  have  come 
here  since  that  time,  and  others  are  still 
coming.  Early  in  our  history,  also, 
negroes,  or  people  of  the  black  race,  were 
brought  here  from  Africa  as  laborers. 
There  are  now  many  negroes  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
South.  People  from  China  and  Japan,  in 
Asia,  who  belong  to  the  yellow  race,  also 
came  to  our  country.  They  are  not  now 
allowed  to  come  so  freely  as  they  once 
were. 

94.  How  Our  Country  has  Grown. — 
Much  territory  has  been  added,  from 
time  to  time,  to  the  land  included  in  the 
thirteen  original  states.  These  additions 
have  made  our  country  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  world.  There  are  now  forty-eight 
states  in  the  Union.  In  addition  to 
these,  our  country  includes  Alaska,  and 
controls  the  Canal  Zone,  in  the  continent 
of  North  America.  Many  islands  also 
belong  to  the  United  States,  including 
Porto  Rico,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the 
Philippines,  and  others. 

95.  Groups  of  States. — We  will  now 
turn  our  attention  to  the  different  parts  of 


our  country.  For  this  study  we  will  di- 
vide the  United  States  and  its  possessions 
into  eight  groups,  as  follows  :  i.  The  New 
England  States.  2.  The  Middle  Atlantic 
States.  3.  The  South  Atlantic  States. 
4.  The  South  Central  States.  5.  The 
North  Central  States.  6.  The  Plateau 
States.  7.  The  Pacific  States.  8.  The 
Outlying  Possessions  of  the  United  States. 


Fig.   156.     Groups  of  states 


Review  of  Sections  93  to  95. — i.  Who  were 

the  first  inhabit;ints  of  North  America  ?  2.  Why 
were  they  called  Indians  ?  3.  What  food  did  they 
have  1  What  kind  of  clothes  ?  What  kinds  of 
houses  ?     4.  Name  the  four  races  of  men. 

5.  Where  did  the  white  settlers  of  our  country 
come  from  .''  6.  What  nation  got  possession  of  the 
eastern  part  of  North  America  ?  7.  When  the 
United  States  became  independent,  how  many 
states  were  there  ?  8.  How  many  are  there  now .' 
9.  Into  what  groups  are  they  divided  .'' 


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Physical  and  Political 

New  England  States 


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.Scale  of  SUituto  Milca 

10  90         30  40  DO 

BB  MILES  TO  ONC  INCH 

CnpitulH  or  St«U-a  thuB:    ® 
ELEVATIONS  IN  FttT 


Mononwy  Pi. 


I 1  BOO  TO  1O0O 

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OOl'YRtOHT,   DV  AMSniOAN  UOOK  OOMCANV 


Loneltuda      Woat      70"  from      arnonwrlch 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND  STATES 


91 


Fig.   158.     Mount  Greylock,  in  the  Berkshire  Hills,  the  hi^ln 


t  inimiitain  in  Massachusetts 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND  STATES 

96.  Map  Study. — If  you  will  turn  to 
the  political  map  of  the  United  States 
(Fig.  150),  you  will  find  in  the  north- 
eastern part  a  group  of  six  states.  The 
group  is  called  New  England,  after  Eng- 
land in  Europe.  The  states  are  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachu- 
setts, Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  The 
map  facing  this  page  represents  the  same 
group  of  states,  drawn  on  a  larger  scale. 
What  is  the  scale  used  in  this  map  .? 

Using  the  scale  of  miles  for  Figure  157, 
find  the  distance  in  miles  between  Boston 
in  Massachusetts  and  Augusta  in  Maine. 
Turn  again  to  Figure  150.  Using  the 
scale  for  that  map,  find  the  distance 
between  the  same  two  cities.  How  do  the 
two  measurements  compare  ?  The  dis- 
tance between  any  two  places  should 
measure  the  same  number  of  miles  on  all 
maps. 

In  studying  a  map  you  should  always 
be   careful   to   notice   the   scale  of  miles 


before  deciding  that  a  region  is  large  or 
small,  or  that  a  distance  is  long  or  short. 

What  other  state  not  in  New  England 
is  about  the  same  size  as  Maine  (Fig. 
150)?  Rhode  Island?  Massachusetts.'' 
The  area  of  Maine  is  half  that  of  the  New 
England  group.  How  many  of  the  states 
in  the  western  part  of  our  country  are 
larger  than  Maine  ? 

97.  Surface,  Drainage,  and  Soil. — 
Along  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
larger  rivers,  there  are  some  small  plains. 
Most  of  New  England  is  hilly,  however, 
and  some  parts  are  mountainous.  The 
greatest  mountains  of  New  England  are 
the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hamp- 
shire and  the  Green  Mountains  of  Ver- 
mont. The  rugged  highlands  in  west- 
ern Massachusetts  are  known  as  the 
Berkshire  Hills.  Because  of  the  uneven 
surface  of  the  land,  the  New  England 
rivers  have  many  rapids  and  waterfalls. 
These  falls  furnish  an  abundance  of 
power  which  is  used  to  turn  the  wheels 
of  mills  and  factories. 


92 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


Fig.   159. 


17.  5.  Geological  Svrvu/ 
Bowlder-Strewn  hillside,  in  Massachusetts 


Fig.   160.     Conveying  ice  to  a  large  ice  house 


Thousands  of  years  ago  a  great  glacier, 
or  immensely  thick  sheet  of  ice,  spread 
over  New  England  from  the  north.  It 
swept  the  soil  from  many  of  the  hills 
and  left  the  bare  rocks  exposed.  In 
other  places  the  soil  and  broken  rock 
were  spread  over  the  land  (Fig.  159).  In 
the  thin  soils  of  the  upland  regions,  and 
in  the  more  stony  glacial  soils,  the  raising 
of  large  crops  is  impossible,  as  there  is  too 
little  fine  earth  to  furnish  plant  food. 

98.  The  Climate  of  New  England. — 
The  New  England  winters  are  usually 
very  cold,  except  on  the  southern  sea- 
coast.  The  snow  is  deep  arid  sometimes 
piles  in  great  drifts  in  the  roads  and  fence 
corners.  During  the  winter,  farmers  take 
care  of  their  stock  and  cut  their  wood, 
and  lumhcrmen  get  out  logs  for  the  mills. 
The  rivers  and  lakes  are  frozen  over,  and 
large  quantities  of  ice  are  cut  and  stored 
for  summer  use  (Fig.   160). 

A  part  of  the  summer  is  warm  ;  but  it 
is  generally  comfortable  in  the  moun- 
tains, in  the  woods  of  northern  Maine, 
and  along  the  coast  where  cool  winds  blow 
from  the  ocean.  Crops  seldom  fail  for 
lack  of  moisture,  as  there  is  plenty  of 
rain  during  the  growing  season. 

Review  of  Sections  96  to  98. -i.  Nami-  1  In- 
states in  this  niiHip.  2.  Why  was  this  Kriju|:) 
named    New    Kngland  .^     j.    How  do  these  states 


compare  in  size  with  those  in  the  southern  and 
western  parts  of  our  country  ? 

4.  Where  are  the  White  Mountains .''  The 
Green  Mountauis  ?  The  Berlcshire  Hills  ? 
5.  Why  are  there  so  many  waterfalls  in  the  New 
England  streams .''  6.  Of  what  use  are  they  ? 
7.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  glacier  upon  the 
soils  of  New  England  .? 

8.  In  what  parts  of  New  England  are  the  winters 
cold  ?  9.  What  farm  work,  is  done  in  the  winter 
time  ?  10.  Where  are  the  cool  places  during  the 
warm  summer  months  .'' 

99.  Manufacturing. — In  spite  of  its 
small  area  and  rugged  surface.  New  Eng- 
land is  a  very  important  part  of  our  coun- 
try. It  belongs  to  the  great  manufactur- 
ing region  of  the  United  States  (Sec.  92), 
and  has  a  large  population.  Raw  ma- 
terials from  distant  places  in  our  own 
country,  and  from  other  parts  of  the  world, 
are  brought  to  its  mills  and  factories  to  be 
inaiuifartured. 

When  manufacturing  began  in  New 
England,  the  waterfalls  furnished  the 
power  needed  to  run  the  mills  and  fac- 
tories. As  a  result,  many  important 
cities  grew  up  around  waterfalls.  Now  so 
much  manufacturing  is  done  in  New  Eng- 
land that  coal  is  brought  from  other  states 
to  furnish  additional  power.  Also,  the 
power  of  many  waterfalls  is  used  to 
develop  electricity,  which  is  sent  over 
wires  to  distant  cities  to  furnish  power, 
heat,  and  light. 


THE   NEW    ENGLAND   STATES 


93 


100.  Cotton  and  Woolen  Goods. —  land  forests.  Now  the  industry  is  so 
Chief  among  the  manufactures  of  New  large  that  hides  and  leather  are  brought 
England    are   cotton    and   woolen    goods,     from  the  western  states,  and  from  Europe, 


Most  of  the  cotton  comes  from  the 
southern  states.  The  wool  comes  chiclly 
from  the  western  states  and  from  Aus- 
tralia and  South  America.  Cotton  goods 
are  manufactured 
at  Fall  River,  Nezv 
Bedford,  and  Lozvell 
in  Massachusetts, 
Pazvtucket  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  in  many 
other  cities.  In 
some  of  these  cities 
woolen  goods  also 
are  made  ;  but  Lazv- 
rence  in  Massachu- 
setts and  Providence 
in  Rhode  Island  are 
the  most  important 
centers  for  woolen  manufacture  (Fig.  l6i) 


Fig.   161.     Weaving  woolen  cloth,  Lawrence,  Mass 


Asia,  Australia,  and  South  America. 
Boston  is  the  great  leather  market,  and 

Lynn,  Brockton,  and  Haverhill  in  eastern 

Massachusetts  are  the   chief   centers   for 

the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes 
(Fig.  162).  There 
are  also  large  shoe 
factories  in  Man- 
chester, New  Hamp- 
shire. 

102.  Manufac- 
tures in  Metal. — Al- 
though there  is  but 
little  mining  in  New 
England,  many  arti- 
cles made  of  metal 
are  manufactured  in 

its  factories.     Most  of  these  articles  gain 


loi.    Leather    Goods. — Another    great  much  of  their  value  from  the  skillful  work 

industry    is    the    manufacture   of   leather  done  on  them. 

goods,    especially    boots    and    shoes.     In  The  center  of  jewelry  manufacture   is 

the  early  days  of  the  industry  the  hides  Providence,   Rhode   Island.     Cutlery   and 

used    came   from   the   animals    raised    in  silverware    are    made    at    Meriden    and 

New  England,  or  in  the  near-by  states;  Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  and  watches  at 

and  they  were  made  into  leather  in  tan-  Ifallham,  Massachusetts,  and    at    JVater- 

neries  that  used  bark  from  the  New  Eng-  bury,    Connecticut.     Other    metal    goods 


Fig.  162.     Finishing  shoes  in  a  New  England  shoe  factory 


Fig.  163.     Making  brass  castings  in  a  Connecticut  foundry 


94 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


boiled  to  a  pulp.  The  pulp  is  then  freed 
from  impurities  and  made  into  paper, 
which  is  wound  into  large  rolls  (Fig.  165). 

Review  of  Sections  99  to  103. — i.  What  is  the 

leading  industry  of  New  England .''  2.  What 
power  was  first  used  for  it?  3.  What  additional 
power  is  now  used,  and  where  does  it  come  from  ? 
4.  Where  are  the  large  cotton  factories  ?  Woolen 
factories  ?  Boot  and  shoe  factories  ?  5.  Where 
do  the  raw  materials  used  in  the  leather  industries 
come  from  ?  The  cotton  ?  The  wool  ?  6.  What 
are  some  of  the  metal  manufactures  ?  7.  Where 
are  they  made  ?     8.  From  what  is  paper  made  } 

manufactured    in   New    England    include  104.    Farming.  —  Although     there     are 

hardware  of  all  kinds,  wire,  brass  goods,  many  farms  in  New  England,  it  is,  as  a 

firearms,    and    machinery.     The    manu-  whole,  not  a  good  farming  country.    Much 

facture  of  metal  goods  is  especially  im-  of  the  soil  is  too  thin  or  stony  to  be  cul- 


portant  in  AVct;  Haven, 
Bridgeport,  and  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  and 
in  JVorcester  and  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts. 

103.  Paper. — Many 
years  ago  paper  was 
usually  made  from  rags. 
These  were  collected 
by  men  who  traveled 
through  the  country 
with  big  wagons,  going 
from  village  to  village 
and  from  house  to 
house.  The  rags  were 
cleaned  and  sorted,  and 
some  of  them  were  made 


tivated,  and  there  are 
hills  whose  sides  are  so 
steep  that  they  cannot 
be  plowed.  In  river 
valleys,  however,  the 
soil  is  deep,  fine,  and 
rich,  and  there  is  much 
good  soil  also  on  ridges 
and  hills  of  low  eleva- 
tion. The  population 
of  New  England  is  so 
large,  and  there  is  so 
much  need  of  food,  both 
for  men  and  for  beasts, 
that  even  some  of  the 
poorer  soil  is  cultivated. 
Large   crops   of   hay 


into  paper.     The  best  grades  of  paper  are  are  raised  in  all  the  states.     Potatoes  are 

still   made   from    rags,   especially    in    the  raised,  especially  in  Maine,  and  tobacco  is 

mills  at  Ilolyoke,  Massachusetts.  cultivated  in  the  Connecticut  Valley,  both 

Most  of  the  paper  used  for  newspapers,  in  Connecticut  and  in  Massachusetts.   The 

magazines,  books,  and  other  purposes  is  New  England  orchards  produce  an  abun- 

now   made  from  wood.     For  this  use  a  dance  of  apples  and  other  fruits.     Near 

soft   wood,   like  spruce,   is   needed.     The  the  larger  cities  there  are  many  small  farms 

spruce  forests  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  devoted  to  market  gardening.     They  fur- 

and   Vermont   funiish   many  trees  to  the  nish    jieas,   sweet    corn,  beans,  squashes, 

paper    mills.      The    wood    is    ground    or  tomatoes,  onions,  and    other    vegetables, 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND  STATES 


95 


teiu 

IP'^^SB 

I^4wm|13 

!l'\*''IS^^^IVi^^MHbP  1 

WmkfOcfi'Xlt 

•  "jfc-  f]^^  k               t,  ^    "  (■      .    ■fWmi 

l^gB^I; 

i)  ^^ 

'  MkA 

■y*^ 

-v(v  't^^wMKBifaH^^I 

Fig.    loD.     "Sugaring  off,"   the  last  process  in 
making  maple  sugar,  Vermont 


as  well  as  small  fruits,  to  the  people  of 
the  cities. 

On  nearly  all  New  England  farms  there 
is  some  dairying,  for  much  of  the  land  that 
cannot  be  cultivated  is  used  for  pastures. 
The  milk  is  sent  either  to  factories  to 
be  made  into  butter  and  cheese,  or  to 
the  city  and  sold.  Many  horses,  sheep, 
hogs,  and  fowls  are  raised. 

105.  The  Forests  and  Lumbering.— 
Patches  of  woods  are  scattered  over  the 
higher  and  rougher  parts  of  New  England, 
and  nearly  every  farm  has 
a  wood  lot.  Large  forests 
are  found  only  in  Maine  and 
in  the  mountain  regions  of 
New  Hampshire  and  Ver- 
mont. Every  year  many 
of  these  trees  are  cut  down 
and  taken  to  mills  to  be 
made  into  pulp  for  paper, 
sawed  into  boards,  or  manu- 
factured into  wooden  articles 
of  various  kinds.  Bangor 
and  Portland  are  the  leading 
lumber  markets  in  Maine, 
but  factories  for  the  manu- 
facture of  wooden  ware  are 
scattered  over  the  state. 

Throughout     New     Eng- 


land, but  especially  in  Vermont,  there  are 
maple  trees  in  the  woodlands.  Each  spring 
these  trees  are  tapped  for  the  sweet  juice, 
or  sap,  which  then  begins  to  come  up  into 
the  trees  from  their  roots.  The  tapping 
is  done  by  boring  a  small  hole  a  little 
way  into  the  tree  and  putting  in  a  spout, 
from  which  the  sap  drops  into  a  bucket. 
The  sap  is  usually  gathered  twice  a  day, 
and  it  is  boiled  until  most  of  the  water 
in  it  is  evaporated.  As  it  boils  it  grows 
thicker  and  sweeter,  and  finally  becomes 
sirup.  When  the  sirup  is  thick  it  is  al- 
lowed to  cool.  If  thick  enough,  it  cools 
into  maple  sugar  (Fig.  166). 

106.  Quarrying. — The  rocks  of  New 
England  furnish  much  valuable  building 
stone.  Fine,  hard,  gray  granite  (Fig.  167) 
is  quarried  in  every  state.  It  is  used  for 
buildings,  monuments,  curbstones,  and 
pavements.  An  excellent  quality  of  mar- 
ble is  found  in  Vermont,  western  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Connecticut.  Proctor  and 
Rutland,  Vermont,  are  great  marble  cen- 
ters.    Marble  is  much  used   in  building. 


1^1       ''^^^^^R^k.-       1 

1 

i 

^r* 

^ 

^"J63 

IH^M 

--  -^^^smmim 

^^^    '    '-■  jfm^-'^^.m 

^^SHHBBPNIfc'?^ '                 ^^^^^^^tg^:-" 

H^^u 

■i                                                                                                                                                    ' 

lAi.. 

m,r'- 

jim  M^4. 

i 

'3-g^ 

Ik^           >       ' 

^mut   Ji 

■l:-" 

Fig.  167.     Granite  quarry,  Wnuuut 


96 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


<^^^ltTffi 


'l,f:      '4 


Fig.  168.     Slate  quarry,  and  piles  ot  the  tliin 
slate  used  for  roofing 


Some  of  the  marble  is  used  tor  the  outer 
walls,  but  more  of  it  for  interior  work  ; 
it  is  used  also  for  monuments 
and  statues.  Slate,  a  fine- 
grained rock  that  can  be  cut 
into  large  slabs  or  split  into 
thin  sheets  (Fig.  i68),  is 
used  in  building.  Slabs  are 
used  for  school  blackboards, 
and  thin  sheets  are  cut  to  a 
uniform  size  and  used  for 
roofing. 

107.  Fishing. — Intheclear, 
cold  waters  off  the  coast  of 
New  England,  and  in  the 
shallow  waters  near  New- 
foundland, there  are  great 
numbers  of  fish  that  furnish 
excellent  food.  For  years 
fishing  has  been  followed  as 
a  business  by  men  of  the 
seacoast  towns  and  cities, 
especially  in  Gloucester  and 
Boston,  Massachusc-rt'^,  and 
Portland,  Maine. 

Cod  and  halibut  are  found 
on  the  Banks  of  Newfound- 
land, as  the  shallows  south 
of    that    island    have    been 


named.  These  fishing  grounds  are 
several  hundred  miles  from  home  ports. 
Mackerel,  herring,  and  bluefish  are 
caught  along  the  coast,  and  many  oysters, 
clams,  and  lobsters  are  found  near  the 
shore. 

When  the  fishing  vessels  (Fig.  169)  re- 
turn to  port,  some  of  the  catch  is  sold 
fresh,  and  the  rest  is  canned,  dried 
(Fig.  170),  or  salted. 

108.    Country  Homes  and  Summer  Re- 
sorts.— In    parts    of    New    England    the 
upland    farms   were    deserted    years    ago 
because   it   was   hard   work   to   cultivate 
them.     During   the    last    few   years    city 
people  have  been  buying  such  farms  for 
country   homes,  where 
they    may    spend    the 
hot  summer  months. 

In  many  places,  both 
on  the  coast  and  in 
the  interior,  summer 
hotels  have  been  built. 
During  the  summer 
many  thousands  of 
people  visit  these  re- 
sorts for  rest  and  pleas- 
ure. Some  of  them 
are  in  the  mountains, 
where  one  finds  cool  air 
and  attractive  scenery. 

1(59.     Fishing  boats,  Clouccste'  •' 


THE    NEW    ENGLAND    SIAIES 


97 


Fig.  171.     Tremont  Street,  Boston.     State  House  beyond  the  Common 


Some  are  in  the  woods  and  on  the  shores 
of  lakes,  where  there  are  hunting  and 
fishing.  Others  are  on  the  seashore, 
where  there  are  great  rocks  and  dashing 
waves,  or  fine  sandy  beaches  for  bathers, 
and  quiet  protected  waters  for  boating. 

109.  Commerce  and  the  Cities. — 
Much  of  the  material  used  by  the  New 
England  factories  is  brought  in  from  other 
parts  of  the  world.  Large  quantities  of 
manufactured  goods  are  sent  to  distant 
points  to  be  sold.  A  part  of  this  trade 
is  with  countries  across  the  ocean.  More 
of  it  is  with  other  parts  of  our  own  coun- 
try and  with  Canada.  All  the  larger 
places  are  connected  with  one  another 
and  with  the  seaports  by  railroads.  On 
the  map  (Fig.  147),  point  out  the  rail- 
roads of  New  England. 

From  our  own  country  the  people  of 
New  England  get  food,  cotton,  some  wool 
and  hides,  coal,  iron,  and  other  metals  for 
use  in  manufacturing.  From  other  parts 
of  the  world  they  get  more  wool  and  hides, 
and  many  other  things.  The  trade  with 
our  own  country  and  with  Canada  is 
carried  on  in  coasting  vessels  and  by  rail. 
The  trade  with  most  foreign  countries  is 
carried  on  in  great  steamships. 


Boston,  the  capital  of 
Massachusetts,  is  the 
largest  city  and  the  great- 
est seaport  of  New  Eng- 
land (Fig.  171).  Through 
this  port  an  enormous 
amount  of  commerce  is 
carried  on.  The  Cape 
Cod  Canal  (Figs.  157, 172) 
has  shortened  the  route 
of  ships  plying  between 
Boston  and  ports  to  the 
south.  Providence,  the 
capital  of  Rhode  Island, 

is  the  second  largest  city  of  New  England. 

Portland,  in  Maine,  is  another  important 

seaport. 

Review  of  Sections   104  to   109.  —  i.   What 

makes  farming  in  New  England  difficult .''  2.  What 
crops  are  raised  ?  3.  Why  are  poor  soils  some- 
times cultivated  ?  4.  Where  are  the  farms  devoted 
to  market  gardening?  5.  Where  is  dairying 
carried  on  .?     6.  What  is  done  with  the  milk  ? 

7.  Where  are  the  forests  ?  8.  For  what  are  the 
trees  used  ^  9.  How  are  maple  trees  tapped  ? 
10.  What  is  done  with  the  sap  .'' 

II.  Where  is  granite  quarried?  Marble? 
12.  For  what  are  they  used?  13.  For  what  is 
slate  used  ? 

14.  Name  three  cities  that  have  many  fishermen. 
15.  What  fish  are  caught  ?     Where? 

16.  Where  are  the  summer  resorts  ?     Why  ? 

17.  How  is  the  trade  of  New  England  with 
other  lands  carried  on  ? 


Fig.   172.     Cape  Cod  Canal 


THE   MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   S1ATES 
THE   MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


99 


no.  Size  and  Position. —  The  Middle 
Atlantic  States  are  .W'zv  York,  Nezv 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  are  each  larger  than 
any  two  of  the  New  England  States,  but 
New  Jersey  is  only  about  as  large  as 
Massachusetts. 


equal  height,  with  narrow  valleys  be- 
tween the  ridges  (Fig.  173).  In  these 
mountains  large  beds  of  hard  coal,  or 
anthracitr,  have  been  found. 

On  Figure  146  find  the  region  known 
as  the  Appalachian  Plateau.  The  word 
plateau  means  a  broad  highland  region 
where  the  surface  is  nearly  level.  The 
rock    layers    under    the    surface    of    the 


The  Middle  .Atlantic  group  lies  between  Appalachian  Plateau  are  nearly  level,  but 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  southeast  and  the  rivers  have  cut  deep  valleys,  thus 
two  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Law-  making  the  whole  region  hilly.  In  east- 
rence  River  on  the  north  (Fig.  173).  ern  New  York  this  plateau  reaches  almost 
Which  states  are  bordered  by  the  Atlantic  to  the  Hudson  R^ver,  and  is  known  as  the 
Ocean  .?  Which  states  are  bordered  by  Catskill  Mountains.  From  the  Hudson 
Lake  Erie  .?  What  states 
border  New  York  on  the 
east  ? 

III.  Surface.  —  South- 
ern New  Jersey  is  a  part 
of  the  low,  flat,  sandy 
coastal  plain  that  borders 
much  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States. 
Long  Island,  a  part  of 
New  York  state,  may 
also  be  included  in  this 
plain,  although  its  surface 
is  somewhat  rough  where 
the  ancient  glacier  left 
ridges  and  hills  of  clay, 
sand,  and  gravel.  In 
southeastern  New  York, 
northeastern  New  Jersey, 
and  southeastern  Penn- 
sylvania the  land  is  low 
but  hilly. 

West  of  the  hilly  low- 
land is  the  northern  part 
of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
taiyis.  In  eastern  Penn- 
sylvania the  mountains 
are  low   ridges  of  nearly 


hi^.  174. 


A  small  part  of  the  city  of  New  York.     In  the  foreground  are  the 
Post  Office  and  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Station 


lOO 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


four/csy  of  Frant  M.  WtUiavts.  .V.  1'.  Stall  t'nijinicr 
Fig.   175.     A  lock  on  the  Erie  Barge  Canal 


the  plateau  stretches  across  southern  New 
York  and  western  Pennsylvania.  In 
Pennsylvania  this  region  contains  great 
quantities  of  coal  and  iron  ore. 

In  the  w  estern  part  of  New  York,  north 
of  the  plateau  and  bordering  Lake  Erie 
and  Lake  Ontario,  are  the  Lake  Plains. 
This  region  is  nearly  level  and  very  fertile. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Hudson  Valley 
on  the  east  by  the  narrow  valley  of  the 
Mohawk  River.  Across  the  plains  and 
through  the  Mohawk  Valley,  a  canal  con- 
nects the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Hudson 
River  (Fig.  175). 

North  of  the  Mohawk  Valley  is  the 
mountain  group  known  as  the 
Adirondacks.  It  is  a  region  of 
forests  and  beautiful  lakes.  East 
of  the  Hudson  the  land  is  rough 
where  the  Berkshire  Hills  extend 
into  New  York  from  New  England. 

112.  Climate  and  Drainage. 
As  the  Middle  Allantic  States  lie 
a  little  farther  south,  their  climate 
Is  somewhat  milder  tli.m  that  of 
New  England.  The  winters  are 
cold  and  there  is  nuich  snow, 
especially  in  the  highlands.  In 
the    lowlands,    the    summers    are 


often  very  warm,  but  it  is 
usually  cool  in  the  mountains 
and  at  the  seashore. 

During  the  winter  the 
snow  gathers  in  the  forests 
w  hich  cover  the  slopes  of  the 
northern  Appalachians,  es- 
IK-cially  in  the  Adirondacks 
and  in  the  higher  hills  of  the 
plateau.  When  the  warmer 
weather  comes,  the  snow 
melts  slowly  and  helps  to 
keep  the  streams  full  for  a 
long  time.  Many  of  the 
streams  have  waterfalls. 

The  streams  have  worn  deep  valleys 
across  the  Appalachian  Plateau,  and  have 
cut  its  surface  into  hills.  In  the  moun- 
tain section  east  of  the  plateau,  the 
streams  have  worn  away  the  soft  rocks 
and  left  hard  layers  standing  as  mountain 
ridges.  Some  of  the  streams,  while  wear- 
ing down  the  land,  flowed  across  the  hard 
layers  and  cut  narrow  valleys,  or  water 
gaps,  across  them  (Fig.  176). 

The  most  inii)()rtant  rivers  of  this  region 
are  the  Hudson  and  its  chief  tributary, 
the  Mohawk.  They  are  important  be- 
cause   the    valleys    through    which    they 


THE   MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES 


lOI 


flow  form  a  low  pass  across 
the  Appalachian  region. 
The  Delaware  and  Suscjue- 
hanna  rivers  also  are  im- 
portant because  they  cut 
through  the  mountains,  and 
their  tributaries  reach  far 
back  into  the  plateau  (Fig. 
173).  In  western  Pennsyl- 
vania there  is  another  great 
river,  the  Ohio.  Its  tribu- 
taries flow  down  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  plateau. 

The  early  settlers  used  these  valleys  in 
making  their  way  inland.  Now  great  rail- 
way lines  have  been  built  through  them. 
These  railroads  join  those  in  the  east  with 
those  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  connect 
with  other  lines  to  form  through  routes 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 

The  Adirondack  region  drains  into  the 
Hudson  and  Mohawk  on  the  south  and 
the  Great  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  on  the 
north.  The  Lake  Plains  drain  into  the 
Great  Lakes. 

Review  of  Sections  110  to  112. — i.  Name  the 
states  in   the   Middle  Atlantic  group. 

2.  Which  part  of  New  Jersey  is  in  the  coastal 
plain  ? 

3.  Where  are  the  Appalachian  Mountains .'' 
What  mineral  is  found  in  them  ?  4.  Where  is  the 
Appalachian  Plateau  ?  Why  is  it  so  hilly  ? 
J.  Of  what  region  are  the  Catskill  Mountains  a 
part  ?  6.  What  part  of  New  York  state  is  occupied 
by  this   plateau  ?     What   part  of  Pennsylvania  .' 

7.  Where  are  the  Lake  Plains  ?  What  kind  of 
land  is  that  region  ?  8.  How  are  the  Lake  Plains 
connected  with  the  Hudson  Valley.' 

9.  Where  are  the  Adirondack  Mountains  ? 
10.  What  group  of  hills  is  east  of  the  Hudson 
River  ? 

II.  How  does  the  climate  of  these  states  differ 
from  that  of  New  England  ? 

11.  Where  have  the  streams  cut  water  gaps? 
13.  Why  is  the  Hudson-Mohawk  Valley  im- 
portant.' 14.  What  are  the  other  important 
rivers?     15.  For  what  are  the  river  valleys  used  ? 


rn;.   177.     Truck  farming  m  New  Jersey 


113.  The  Soils,  Agriculture,  and  Dairy- 
ing.— The  soils  on  the  lower  hillsides,  in 
the  valleys,  and  on  the  Lake  Plains  are 
fine  and  deep. 

Most  of  New  York  and  a  part  of  north- 
ern Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  were 
once  covered  by  a  great  ice  sheet  or  glacier. 
In  its  movement  (Sec.  97)  the  glacier 
ground  up  rocks,  and  when  it  finally  melted 
it  left  a  sheet  of  stony  soil  in  many  places. 
In  places  that  were  never  covered  by  the 
glacier,  the  soils  have  been  brought  by 
rivers,  or  formed  by  the  breaking  up  of 
the  rocks  underneath  (Sec.  14). 

Both  agriculture  and  dairying  are  im- 
portant industries  in  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States.  Wheat,  corn,  barley,  oats,  and 
potatoes  are  raised  on  the  farms,  and  New 
York  ranks  as  the  second  state  in  the 
Union  in  fruit  raising.  Apples,  grapes, 
peaches,  and  other  fruits  are  raised  in  the 
Hudson  Valley,  along  the  shores  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  around  the  lakes  in  cen- 
tral and  western  New  York.  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania  also  raise  much  fruit. 

Truck  farming,  or  market  gardening,  is 
carried  on  near  all  the  larger  cities,  es- 
pecially in  New  Jersey  (Fig.  177),  in 
southeastern  Pennsylvania,  and  on  Long 
Island. 


ro2 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


There  are  many  dairy  farms  near  the 
large  cities  and  in  the  highland  regions 
where  the  soil  is  poor  and  thin.  The 
railroads  in  dairying  districts  have  special 
trains  to  carry  the  milk  to  the  cities. 
There  are  also  many  creameries  and  fac- 
tories where  butter  and  cheese  are  made 
(Fig.  178). 

114.  Mineral  Wealth.— The  Middle 
Atlantic  States  are  rich  in  minerals.  In 
Pennsylvania  there  are  large  deposits  of 
coal.  Nearly  all  the  hard  coal,  or  anthra- 
cite, of  the  country  is  found  in  eastern 
Pennsylvania.  Much  of  the  soft,  or  bitu- 
minous,  coal  is  found  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  state,  near   Pittsburgh    (Fig. 


179).  It  burns  more  rapidly  and  with 
more  smoke  and  gas  than  the  anthracite, 
and  is  not  so  good  a  fuel.  Railroads 
connect  the  coal  fields  with  the  other 
parts  of  the  country  and  carry  the  coal 
to  distant  markets  (Fig.  180). 

Petroleum,  or  "  rock  oil,"  and  natural" 
gas  are  found  in  western  Pennsylvania 
and  southwestern  New  York.  They  are 
obtained  by  drilling  wells  into  the  rock. 
The  oil  is  pumped  to  the  surface,  and  is 
forced  through  great  pipes  (Fig.  181)  to 
refineries,  where  kerosene,  gasoline,  and 
other  products  are  made  from  it.  The 
natural  gas  is  piped  into  houses  and 
factories  and  used  for  light  and  fuel. 


I'lji.    180.     Coal  111  (irtal  heaps  ready  lo  be  sjiil  to  market 


TIIF    MIODIK   ATLANTIC   STATES 


lO^ 


Iron  ore  is  mined  at  several  places  in 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  chiefly  in 
Pennsylvania. 

Limestone  and  clays  of  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York  are  used  in  making  ce- 
ment, brick  (Fig.  182),  and  tile.  The 
sandstone  and  marble  of  New  York,  and 
the  slate  of  Pennsylvania,  are  used  in 
building. 

There  are  large  salt  deposits  in  western 
New  York.  The  salt  is  dissolved  in  water, 
which  is  then  pumped  into  vats  to  evap- 
orate. 

115.  Forests. — ^The  great  forests  that 
once  covered  this  part  of  our  country  have 
been  cut  away.  The 
Adirondack  region, 
however,  is  still  well 
covered  (Fig.  183),  and 
there  is  much  woodland 
in  other  parts  of  the 
Appalachian  Moun- 
tains and  on  the  Appa- 
lachian Plateau.  The 
timber  supply  is  de- 
creasing, but  lumbering 
and  the  manufacture 
of  wood  pulp  and  paper 
are  still  carried  on. 


Fig.  182.     Brick-making  machinery 


116.  Manufacturing. — Many  conditions 
have  combined  to  make  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States  one  of  the  chief  manufac- 
turing regions  of  our  country.  The 
products  that  we  have  so  far  studied  are 
the  raw  materials  from  which  many  ar- 
ticles are  made.  Ocean-going  vessels  can 
reach  both  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 
Railroads  through  the  river  valleys  con- 
nect the  cities  of  the  great  central  plain 
with  these  two  ports.  A 
water  route  that  includes 
the  Hudson  River,  the 
Eric  Barge  Canal,  and 
the  Great  Lakes,  con- 
nects the  interior  ol 
the  country  with  the 
portof  New  York.  Ovei 
these  routes  raw  ma- 
terials can  be  brought 
to  the  mills  and  fac- 
tories, and  manufac- 
tured goods  can  be  sent 
to  all  parts  of  the  world. 


I04 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


0  c  E  A  y 

SanJu  BMk    \\$andt/  SCALE  3F  milES 

.\X,             t.\Hook            "                 i                '" 
Ali;m.;^-O0  Railways  


Fig.  184.     The  city  of  New  York  and  viciniiy 


Review  of  Sections  113  to  116. — 1.  What  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  soil  do  we  find  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States  ?  2.  What  crop.s  are  raised  ^ 
3.  Where  are  the  dairj'ing  regions.'  4.  How 
is  milk  taken  to  the  cities  .' 

5.  W  here  is  hard  coal  found  .'  6.  Why  arc  these 
deposits  so  important  ?  7.  Where  is  soft  coal 
found .''  8.  Where  is  petroleum  found  in  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  .'  9.  How  is  it  sent  to  the  re- 
fineries ?  10.  Into  what  is  it  made  .''  11.  Where  are 
cement  and  bricks  made  ?    12.  Where  is  salt  found  ? 


13.  What  use  is  made  of  the  forests  ?  14.  What 
are  some  of  the  causes  that  have  helped  to  make 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States  a  great  manufacturing 


region 


? 


117.    City  of  New   York. — The   city  of 

New  York,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
River,  has  a  beautiful  harbor  and  is  the 
largest  city  in  the  New  World.  Many 
great  railway  lines  center  there,  and  to 
its  docks  come  ships  from  every  sea. 
Many  people  who  work  in  this  city  live 
in  the  cities  and  smaller  places  on  Long 
Island,  in  New  Jersey,  in  Connecticut, 
and  in  the  mainland  of  New  York 
state,  especially  along  the  Hudson.  The 
city  of  New  York,  sometimes  called 
Greater  New  York,  now  includes  five 
boroughs :  Manhattan,  Brooklyn,  the 
Bronx,  Queens,  and  Richmond  (Fig.  184).' 
The  piers  around  the  lower  end  of 
Manhattan  Island  do  not  provide  room 
enough  for  all  the  ships  that  come  to  this 
port.  Other  piers  have  therefore  been 
built  on  the  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey 
shores.  Railroads  from  the  north  and 
northeast  cross  from  the  mainland  on 
bridges.  Some  railroads  enter  Man- 
hattan through  tunnels  from  Long  Island 
and  from  New  Jersey  (Fig.  185).  Others 
from  the  south  and  west  end  on  the  New 


i'lH.   IK.S.     Train  ciiUrint!  a  tnnnc-l  in  New  Jersey,  to  pass  under  the  Hudson  River  lo  New  York 


TIIK    MIDDT.K    ATLANTIC   STATES 


105 


r-.g.  180.     Shirt  factory,  Troy 


Fig.  187.     Making  typewriters,  Syracuse 


Jersey  side  of  the  Hudson  River  and  use 
ferries  for  both  passengers  and  freight. 
About  one  half  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
United  States  passes  through  the  port  of 
New  York. 

Street  cars,  elevated  trains,  and  trains 
in  underground  tunnels,  or  subways,  are 
all  used  to  carry  people  from  one  part  of 
the  city  to  another. 

New  York  is  not  only  the  greatest  com- 
mercial city,  but  also  the  greatest  manu- 
facturing city,  in  America.  It  leads  espe- 
cially in  the  manufacture  of  clothing,  and 
in  the  printing  of  books  and  magazines. 
It  also  carries  on  an  enormous  number 
of  other  industries  on  a  large  scale.  In 
Brooklyn  there  are  several  sugar  refineries. 

118.  Other  Cities  of  New  York  State. 
—From  New  York  there  are  several 
routes  that  lead  to  the  west,  and  along 
each  of  them  are  large  cities  with  im- 
portant industries.  One  of  these  routes 
leads  up  the  Hudson  and  west  through 
the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  River  and 
across  the  Lake  Plains  to  Lake  Erie. 

Near  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk  River 
are  J/bany,  the  state  capital,  and  Troy, 
a  city  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  collars, 
cuffs,  and  shirts  (Fig.  186). 

West  of  Albany  is  Schenectady,  where 
much     electrical     machinery     is     made. 


Farther  west  is  Utica,  an  important  rail- 
road center  and  the  center  of  a  rich  farm- 
ing region.  Utica  also  has  large  cotton 
mills.  Still  farther  west  is  Syracuse. 
This  city  is  located  where  several  railroads 
meet,  and  it  carries  on  much  trade  with  all 
the  surrounding  region.  It  has  large 
factories  where  automobiles  and  type- 
writers are  made  (Fig.  187). 

West  of  Syracuse  is  Rochester.  This 
city  is  the  third  in  size  in  the  state,  and 
it  has  large  factories.  Its  chief  industry 
is  the  making  of  clothing.  Rochester  is 
also  especially  noted  for  its  manufacture 
of  photographic  supplies,  and  for  its 
nurseries  where  fine  trees  and  plants  are 
grown  (Fig.  188). 


Fig.   188      Nursery  at  Rochester 


io6 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Buffalo,  the  second 
city  of  the  state  in  popu- 
lation, is  important  both 
as  a  commercial  and  as 
a  manufacturing  city. 
Much  of  the  trade  on 
the  Great  Lakes  centers 
here,  as  does  also  the 
trade  that  passes  over 
the  Erie  Barge  Canal. 
Buffalo  handles  grain, 
live  stock,  and  lumber 
from  the  West.  One  of 
the  largest  steel  plants 
in  the  world  is  located 
near  this  city.  Part  of 
the  electricity  used  in 
Buffalo,  and  in  a  nuni- 
ber  of  other  cities  in 
western  New  "\'ork,  is  produced  at  the 
Niagara  Falls,  where  the  waters  of  the 
Niagara  River  plunge  over  a  cliff  i6o 
feet  high  and  ncarK'  a  mile  wide  (Fig. 
189). 

119.  Cities  of  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey. — Another  important  route  from 
New  York  leads  southwest  and  then  west- 
ward across  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania 
to  the  Ohio  River  (Fig.  173). 


Fig.   189.     Niagara  Falls 


The  greatest  city  along  this  route  is 
Philadelphia,  in  eastern  Pennsylvania. 
It  is  third  in  size  among  the  cities  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  imi)ortant  as  a 
center  both  of  trade  and  of  manufacture. 
Its  chief  industries  are  ship  building,  the 
refining  of  sugar  and  of  i)etroleum,  and 
the  manufacture  of  woolen,  cotton,  leather, 
iron,  and  steel  goods  (Fig.  190). 

West  oi'  Philadelphia,  on   the  Susque- 


THE   MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES 


107 


hanna  River,   is    Ilarrisburg,  the  capital 
of  Pennsylvania,  with  large  steel  mills. 

Pittsburgh,  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  the 
group  of  smaller  cities  around  it,  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel  goods  and  glass.  The  fuel  for  the 
furnaces  comes  from  the  coal  fields  and 
natural  gas  wells,  and  large  quantities  of 
iron  ore  are  shipped  in  from  mines  in 
the    Lake    Superior   region. 

Scranton  is  a  large  city 
in  the  hard  coal  district 
of  Pennsylvania.  Reading, 
near  that  district,  has  large 
steel  mills.  Erie,  a  port  on 
Lake  Erie,  has  flour  mills 
and  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures. 

In  New  Jersey,  Pater  son 
has  large  silk  mills  ;  Trenton, 
the  ca|)ital,  is  noted  for  its 
manufacture  of  pottery ; 
Camden  has  a  talking  ma- 
chine    factory    (Fig.     192)  ; 


and  Newark,  the  largest 
city  of  the  state,  has  a 
variety  of  manufacturing 
industries,  including  the 
refming  of  copper  and 
the  making  of  electrical 
machinery. 

120.  Summer  Resorts. 
— At  many  of  the  shore 
resorts  of  Long  Island 
and  New  Jersey  there 
is  excellent  sea  bathing, 
with  cool  winds  from  the 
ocean  during  the  hot  sum- 
mer days.  The  moun- 
tain resorts  also  are  pop- 
ular, especially  during  the 
season  for  hunting  and 
fishing. 

Review  of  Sections  117  to  120. — i.  Why  is 

the  city  of  New  York  so  important  as  a  trade 
center  ?     2.  What  are   its   leading   manufactures  .'' 

3.  Name  the  chief  cities  along  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk.  Valley  and  Lake  Plains  route  to  Buffalo. 
4.  Why  is  Buffalo  important .''  5.  Where  are  the 
Niagara  Falls.''     Why  are  they  important.? 

6.  What  are  the  chief  manufacturing  industries 
of  Philadelphia  .?  7.  For  what  industries  is  Pitts- 
burgh noted .?     Paterson  .?     Trenton  ?     Newark .? 

8.  Where  are  the  summer  resorts  .? 


big.  ly.:.     Testing  talking  machines,  Camden 


THK   SOUTH    ATLANTIC   STATP:S 


109 


V .  S.  £Jtpt.  of  Au  .  f'uTt^l  . 


Fig.   194.     Foothills  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  in  North  Carolina 


THE  SOUTH  ATLANTIC  STATES 

121.  Position  and  Coast  Line. — The 
South  Atlantic  States  are  the  eight  states 
south  of  Pennsylvania ;  namely,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  JFest  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida  (Fig.  193).  Which 
one  has  the  longest  coast  line  ?  Which 
one  has  no  seacoast .''  Which  si.x  are 
partly  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ? 

At  the  north,  large  bays  indent  the 
coast  and  furnish  good  harbors.  On 
these  bays  and  the  large  rivers  that  flow 
into  them  boats  can  be  used  for  a  long 
distance  inland.  Farther  south  the  coast 
is  more  regular,  and  there  are  not  so 
many  good  harbors.  A  little  distance  off 
the  shore  there  are  long,  sandy  beaches, 
many  miles  in  length.  They  are  called 
barrier  beaches  because  they  shut  off  the 
quiet  waters  behind  them  from  the  ocean 


in  front.  In  the  quiet,  protected  waters 
behind  the  barrier  beaches  boats  make 
long  voyages  in  safety,  even  during  storms 
that  would  make  an  ocean  voyage  unsafe. 

122.  Surface. — Name  the  seven  South 
Atlantic  states  that  border  on  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  A  large  part  of  the  land 
in   this  group   lies   in   the   coastal    plain. 

West  of  the  coastal  plain  is  a  region  of 
older  and  harder  rocks.  It  is  known  as  the 
Piedmont  Plateau;  "Piedmont"  means 
"  foot  of  the  mountain."  Its  surface  is 
more  uneven  than  that  of  the  coastal 
plain,  and  it  lies  somewhat  higher. 

Find  the  rivers  that  flow  across  these 
two  regions  on  their  way  to  the  ocean 
(Fig.  146).  Where  they  descend  from 
the  Piedmont  to  the  coastal  plain  there 
are  rapids  or  falls  that  furnish  water 
power  for  many  factories.  Because  of 
these  waterfalls,  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
Piedmont    is    known  as   the  Fall    Line. 


no 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


West  of  the  Piedmont  region  are 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  (Fig. 
194).  The  eastern  range  is  the  Bkie 
Ridge.  It  was  so  named  by  the 
early  settlers,  who  saw  it  first  at  a 
distance,  when  it  seemed  to  be  blue. 
Beyond  the  Blue  Ridge  is  a  long, 
broad  valley,  called  the  Great  Ap- 
palachian Valley ;  and  still  farther 
west  are  several  other  mountain 
ranges. 

123.  Climate. — In  the  northern 
part  of  this  group  of  states  the 
winters  are  cool,  but  there  is  seldom 
much  snow  on  the  ground.  In  southern 
Florida,  even  in  the  winter,  it  is  usu- 
ally warm  and  pleasant.  The  summers 
throughout  the  region  are  warm,  although 
it  is  cooler  in  the  mountains  than  on  the 
coastal  plain.  The  yearly  rainfall  is 
heavy  (Fig.  145),  as  the  winds  from  the 
ocean  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  bring 
much  moisture  with  them. 

Review  of  Sections  121  to  123. — i.  Name  the 
seven  South  Atlantic  states  that  are  partly  or 
entirely  within  the  coastal  plain.  2.  Which  South 
Atlantic  state  does  not   touch  the  coastal    plain  ? 

3.  Which     states     have     many     good     harbors  ? 

4.  Where  are  there  barrier  beaches  ? 

5.  Where  is  the  Piedmont  region  ?  6.  What 
is  the  Fall  Line  .''  7.  Where  are  the  Appalachians, 
in  this  group  of  states  ? 

8.  Which  are  the 
cooler  parts  of  the 
South  Atlantic  region 
in  sunnner."*  9.  What 
kind  of  winters  does 
Morida   have.' 

124.  Agriculture. 
— In  these  states 
agriculture  is  the 
leading  industry. 
Three  important 
crops  are  tobacco, 
corn,  and  cotton. 


Fig.   195.     Tobacco  field,  Virginia 


Tobacco  was  first  cultivated  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  it  is  now  raised  in  all  the 
South  Atlantic  States,  —  especially  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia,  —  as  well  as  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Corn  is  the  chief  grain  crop  in  every 
South  Atlantic  state,  but  wheat  also  is 
grown  in  the  northern  states  of  the  group. 
Cotton  is  by  far  the  most  important 
crop  in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
and  Georgia  (Fig.  196).  In  many  sections 
nearly  all  the  farms  or  plantations  are  de- 
voted to  this  one  crop.  The  cotton  plant 
grows  about  three  or  four  feet  high,  and 
bears  many  seed  pods,  or  bolls.  When  ripe, 
the  bolls  burst,  and  the  masses  of  lint  or 

white  fibers  that 
they  contain  are 
gathered  by  the 
pickers  (Fig.  197). 
The  seeds  are  re- 
moved by  machin- 
ery, and  the  lint  is 
then  jMessed  into 
bales  and  sent  to 
the  mills  (Fig.  208), 
where  it  is  made 
into  thread  and 
cloth  (Fig.  201). 


THE   SOUTH   ATLANTIC   STATES 


III 


In  Georgia,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Florida,  cotton  is 
grown  both  on  the  islands 
near  the  coast  and  on  the 
mainland.  That  grown  on 
the  islands  and  near  the  sea, 
known  as  sea  island  cotton, 
has  especially  long,  fine 
fibers.  It  is  more  valuable 
than  the  coarse,  short- 
fibered  upland  cottons  be- 
cause finer  and  stronger 
goods  can  be  made  from  it. 

Many    of    the    southern    negroes    find  125.    Forests  and  Minerals. — The  pine 

work  in  the  cotton  fields.  Their  an-  forests  of  the  coastal  states  are  tapped 
cestors  came  from  a  hot  country,  and  for  their  sap,  which  is  made  into  turpen- 
the  negroes  are  able  to  do  hard  work  tine  and  rosin  (Fig.  199).  Georgia  and 
out  of  doors  even  during  the  hottest  Florida  lead  in  this  industry.  There 
weather.  are    great    hard-pine    forests    in    several 

On  the  truck  farms  of  the  soutliern  states.  This  Georgia  pine,  as  it  is  called, 
part  of  the  coastal  plain,  vegetables  and  is  much  used  for  interior  woodwork  and 
berries  are  raised  even  in  winter.  There  for  flooring.  Such  hardwood  trees  as  the 
are  large  orange  and  grapefruit  groves  in  oak  and  maple  grow  chiefly  in  the  moun- 
Florida,  and  pineapples  also  are  raised  in  tains  and  at  the  north, 
that  state  (Fig.  198).  Vegetables  and  In  West  Virginia  are  found  soft  coal, 
fruits  from  the  South  are  carried  by  fast  petroleum,  and  natural  gas.  There  is 
trains  and  steamships  to  the  northern  also  coal  in  Virginia  and  western  Mary- 
markets,  land.     Florida    has    valuable   deposits  of 

Large  crops  of  peanuts  are  grown   in     phosphate  rock,  which  is  mined  and  sold 
Virginia,    North   Carolina,   and   Georgia,     for  use  in  making  fertilizer. 


Fig.   198.     A  pineapple  field  in  Florida 


Fig.   199.     Turpentine  distillery.  South  Carolina 


112 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


126.  Oyster  Fish- 
eries.— The  most  ex- 
tensive oyster  beds 
in  the  United  States 
are  in  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Young 
"  seed  oysters  "  can 
move  about  in  the 
water,  but  they  soon 
fasten  themselves  to 
some  pebble  or  old 
oyster  shell.  A  few 
oysters  are  still  taken 
from  natural  beds  as 
they  have  been  for  many  years.  Most 
of  them  are  now  raised  in  beds  made 
by  covering  the  sea  bottom  with  oyster 
shells  or  gravel.  The  oystermen  go  out 
in  small  boats  to  gather  the  oysters 
with  long-handled  tongs  (Fig.  200). 
Some  of  the  oysters  are  taken  from  the 
shells  and  canned  ;  others  are  packed  in 
ice  and  shipped  fresh  even  to  distant 
cities.  Baltimore  is  the  center  of  the 
oyster  industry  of  this  group  of  states. 


Fig.  200.     Gathering  oysters,  Chesapeake  Bay 


Review  of  Sections 
124  to  126. — I.  Name 
three  important  crops 
of  this  group  of  states. 
2.  Where  is  wheat 
grown?  Corn.''  3.  Name 
two  states  that  grow 
much  tobacco;  three 
that  grow  much  cotton. 
4.  Tell  about  the 
growth  of  the  cotton 
plant.  5.  What  is  done 
with  the  cotton  lint 
after  it  is  picked  r 
6.  Where  is  sea-island 
cotton  grown  ?  7.  Why 
is  it  more  valuable  than 
upland  cotton  ?  ' 

8.  Where  are  there  truck  farms  in  this  group 
of  states  .f"  9.  What  fruits  are  raised  in  Florida  ' 
10.  Where  do  some  southern  fruits  and  vegetables 
find  a  market.'  II.  How  are  they  taken  to  this 
market .' 

12.  What  is  made  from  the  pitch  of  the  pine 
tree?  13.  What  states  lead  in  the  industry? 
14.  Of  what  use  is  the  hard  southern  or  Georgia 
pine?  15.  Where  are  the  hardwood  forests  of 
the  South  Atlantic  States  ?  The  coal  fields  ? 
Petroleum  and  natural  gas  ?     Phosphate  rock  ? 

16.  Where  are  oysters  found  ?  How  are  they 
gatheretl  ?  What  is  done  with  them  ?  17.  What 
city  IS  the  center  of  the  industry  ? 

127.  Manufacturing.  —  Until  a  few 
years  ago,  most  of  the  cotton  raised  in 
the  southern  states  was  sent  to  the  north- 
ern states  or  to  Europe  to  be  manufac- 
tured. This  was  because  the  southern 
people  had  not  learned  how  to  do  the 
work,  and  because  they  thought  that  it 
could  be  done  better  in  a  cooler  climate. 

Now,  however,  more  cotton  is  manu- 
factured in  the  South  than  in  the  North. 
Power  U)  run  the  southern  cotton  mills 
is  furnished  by  the  falls  and  rapids  along 
the  Fall  Line,  and  by  coal  from  the  mines 
not  far  away.  Nearly  all  the  south- 
ern states  are  engaged  in  this  industry, 
but  the  greatest  mills  are  in  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 


THE   SOUTH   ATLANTIC  STATES 


113 


128.  Trade  and  the 
Cities. — For  many  years 
nearly  all  the  trade  of  the 
southern  states,  not  only 
with  European  countries, 
but  also  with  the  North, 
was  carried  on  through  its 
seaports.  Since  railroads 
were  built,  nuich  of  the 
trade  with  the  North  has 
been  carried  on  over  them. 

The  seaports  are  among 
the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant of  the  southern 
cities.  Tampa,  in  south- 
western Florida,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  has  a  large  trade  with 
the  West  Indies.  Jacksonville,  Florida, 
ships  fruit,  lumber,  and  garden  truck. 
Savannah,  Georgia,  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  and  IJ'ilmington,  North  Caro- 
lina, ship  much  cotton  and  lumber. 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  ships  cotton,  lumber, 
and  garden  truck. 

Baltimore  is  the  chief  seaport  and  the 
largest  city  in  the  South  Atlantic  group, 
and  one  of  the  seven  largest  cities  of  the 
country.  It  is  near  the  coal  fields  of 
eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  has  great  can- 
ning factories  and  manufactures  of  iron 
and  steel  goods,  tobacco,  and  clothing. 

In  Wilmingto7x,  Delaware,  ships  and 
cars  are  built  and  powder  is  manufac- 
tured. This  city  contains  nearly  half 
of  the  population  of  the  state,  and  is 
only  a  few  miles  from  Philadelphia.  In 
what  state  is  there  another  city  named 
Wilmington  ^. 

JVheeling,  in  W^est  Virginia,  is  on  the 
Ohio  River,  not  very  far  from  Pittsburgh. 
Its  chief  manufactures  are  iron  and  steel. 
Richmond,  the  capital  and  chief  city 
of    Virginia,    is    a    famous    market     for 


tobacco,  and  has  many  factories  for  its 
manufacture. 

The  rapid  development  of  manufac- 
turing in  the  South  has  led  to  the  growth 
of  inland  towns  and  cities  located  near 
coal  deposits  or  water  power.  Of  these 
the  greatest  is  Atlanta,'m  northern  Georgia, 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  It  is  an  important  railroad 
center.  Some  large  cotton  mills  and  many 
other  manufactories  are  located  here. 

The  coast  cities  of  Florida  are  popular 
as  winter  resorts  for  northern  people  who 
dislike  the  cold  northern  winters. 


Fig.  203.     Railroad  crossings  in  Richmond 


114 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


129.    The  District  of  Columbia  and  the  Washington    is    a    city    of   hotels    and 

National    Capital. — For    many   years    the  homes.      It    has    few    manufactures    and 

offices  of  the  national  government   have  little    trade.     Many   of   the   government 

been  located  in  Washington,  a  city  that  officers    live    here   during    their   terms   of 

was  named    after   the   first    President   of  office.       Because    so    many    people    have 

the  United  States.      The  District  of  Co-  business  with    our    government,  and    be- 

lumbia  is  a  tract  of  land  on  the  north  side  cause  of  the  interesting  things  to  see  in 

of  the  Potomac  River  (Fig.  193)  between  Washington,  thousands  of  people  visit  the 

Maryland    and    Virginia.     Here   the    na-  city  every  year. 

tional  capital,  Washington,  has  grown  to  ^^^.^^  ^^   g^^^.^^^    ^^^  ^^  ^^^_^    ^^^^^ 

be  a  large  and  splendid  city.      It    COntams  did  the  southern  people  formerly  send  their  cotton 

many    public    buildings.      In  the  Capitol,  for  manufacture  ?     2.  Where  havfe  new  mills  been 

Congress   meets   each   year.     The   White  bu'lt? 


House  is  the  home  of  the  President. 
The  Congressional  Library  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  buildings  in  our  country 
(Fig.  204). 


3.  Name  some  southern  seaports  and  tell 
where  they  are  situated.  4.  Which  is  the  largest 
city  in  the  South  Atlantic  group  .?  What  work  is 
done  there  ?  5.  What  city  is  near  Philadelphia  .' 
For  what  is  it  noted  ^ 

6.  Where    is    Wheeling .?     What    are    its    chief 


One  department  whose  work   is   espe-  industries?    7.  What  city  is  the  capital  of  Vir- 

cially  interesting  to  us  all  is  the  Depart-  ginia .?    For  what  is  it  noted  .?    8.  What  large 

ment    of   Agriculture.      Here    are   officers  inland  city  has  grown  up  in  northern  Georgia? 

who  test  foods  to  see  if  they  are  pure,  ^^^^  If,,''  important? 

-^  r        >  fj    Where   is  our  national   capital?      lO.  After 

and  help   farmers  to  find   out   what  crops  ^^,h,„„  ^^^^s  our  capital   city   named?     n.  Name 

can  best   be  grown   in  any  place.  some  of  the  public  buildings  located  there. 


Fig.  204.     Airplane  view  of  Wushiiinton.    The  Capitnl  li.i .   i  Iuri   dome,  and  the  Congressional  Library  a  small  dome. 
The  other  two  I.irnc  biiildinKS  eontain  the  office  rooms  of  members  of  Congress 


THE   SOUTH   CENTRAL  STATES 


"5 


THE  SOUTH  CENTRAL  STATES 

130.  Position. — There  are  eight  South 
Central  States :  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Louisi- 
ana, Oklahoma,  and    Texas  (Fig.   206). 

Which  of  these  states  border  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  Which  states  are  en- 
tirely east  of  the  Mississippi  and  border 
on  that  river  ?  Which  states  are  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River  ?  Which  state  in 
this  group  extends  farthest  north  ?  The 
northern  boundary  of  Kentucky  is  formed 
by  the  northern  bank  of  the  Ohio  River. 
Into  what  river  does  the  Ohio  flow  ? 

131.  Surface  and  Drainage. — The  Ap- 
palachian Mountains  border  Tennessee 
on  the  east  and  extend  into  northern 
Alabama.  West  of  the  mountains  is  a 
part  of  the  Great  Appalachian  Valley. 
It  is  broad  and  fertile. 

West  of  the  Great  Appalachian  Valley, 
in  eastern  Kentucky,  central  Tennessee, 
and  northern  Alabama,  is  the  southern 
part   of  the   Appalachian    Plateau,   here 


known  as  the  Cumberland  Plateau.  The 
edge  toward  the  Great  Valley  is  steep, 
and  the  plateau  surface  has  been  much 
cut  up  by  rivers.  On  the  west,  however, 
the  plateau  slopes  gently  down  to  the 
plains  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

There  is  another  highland  region  in 
western  Arkansas  and  eastern  Oklahoma 
(Fig.  206).  In  western  Texas  there  are 
great  plateaus  and  the  highest  mountains 
in  this  group  of  states. 

Highlands,  however,  form  only  a  small 
part  of  the  surface  of  the  South  Central 
States.  The  larger  part  consists  of  plains. 
Those  in  southern  Alabama,  in  a  part  of 
Mississippi,  and  along  the  coast  of  Texas 
are  coastal  plains.  They  are  known  as  the 
Gulf  Plains  because  they  border  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Many  of  the  other 
plains  of  the  region  are  flood  plains  or 
delta  plains  that  have  been  formed  by 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries. 
Eastern  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  much 
of  Mississippi  are  lands  that  were  formed 
in  this  way. 


no 


Innatl^ 


"7 


Ii8 


THE  UNITED   STATES 


Mtssisslppi  tiiar  Cp 

Fig.  207.     Levee  on  the  Mississippi  River,  in  the  state  of  Mississippi.     In  the  distance  is  a  river  steamboat. 
Notice  that  the  water  in  the  river  is  higher  than  the  road  beside  the  levee 


Flood  plains  and  deltas  have  been  built 
up  out  of  sediment  deposited  by  the 
rivers,  and  the  soils  are  fine,  deep,  and 
very  rich.  Much  sediment  has  been 
deposited  along  the  lower  course  of  the 
Mississippi  near  the  stream  banks.  In 
some  places  the  banks  have  been  built 
higher  than  the  bordering  plains.  In 
places  also  the  sediment  deposited  has 
built  up  the  river  bed  so  that  the  river 
is  now  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country  (Fig.  207).  For  long  distances 
it  has  been  necessary  to  build  banks,  or 
levees,  to  hold  the  river  in  its  channel. 
When  a  levee  is  broken  in  time  of  flood, 
the  water  spreads  over  the  low  plains 
and   does  great   damage. 

Most  of  the  drainage  of  this  group  of 
states  reaches  the  Gulf  through  the 
Mississippi  River.  East  of  this  river, 
however,  there  are  a  few  streams  that 
flow  from  the  southern  end  of  the  Ap[)a- 
lachian  Mountains  to  the  Ciilf.  West  of 
the  Mississippi  also  there  are  a  number 
of  streams  that  flow  directly  into  the 
Gulf.  Some  of  them  are  quite  long,  but 
they  arc  not  oi   mm  li  importance  because 


during  the  dry  season  there  is  little  water 
in  them. 

132.  Climate. — The  map  (Fig.  145) 
shows  that  the  eastern  and  southern 
parts  of  this  group  of  states  have  a  heavy 
rainfall.  Toward  the  north  the  rainfall 
is  somewhat  less,  and  it  decreases  rapidly 
toward  the  far  west.  It  is  on  account  of 
the  small  rainfall  in  western  Texas  that 
some  of  its  rivers  have  so  little  water  in 
them. 

Where  the  rainfall  is  very  light,  crops 
can  be  grown  with  the  aid  of  water  from 
wells  or  rivers.  The  water  is  stored  in 
reservoirs  and  spread  over  the  fields  by 
means  of  ditches.  This  is  irrigation. 
There  are,  however,  large  grassy  plains 
whit  h  cannot  be  irrigated,  but  are  excel- 
lent for  grazing. 

The  temperature  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  group  does  not  change  greatly  with 
the  seasons,  and  there  are  few  frosts. 
In  the  northern  part  there  is  a  marked 
dilTcrcnce  in  temperature  between  winter 
and  summer,  with  snow  and  ice  in  the 
winter.  The  highlands  are,  of  course, 
cooler  than  the  lowlands. 


THE   SOUTH   CEN'IRAL   STATES 


119 


Review  of  Sections  130  to  132. 

—  I.  N.iiiu-  tlu-  states  ill  the 
South  Central  group.  2.  Which 
border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
3.  Which  one  is  the  largest  (Fig. 
206)  ?  4.  Which  one  has  the 
Ohio  River  for  much  of  its  north- 
ern boundary  ?  5.  Where  is 
Oklahoma  .' 

6.  Where  are  the  .Appalach- 
ian Mountains  in  this  group .'' 
7.  Where  is  the  Great  Appa- 
lachian Valley  ?  The  Cumberland 
Plateau  ?  8.  Where  do  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  end  ?  9.  Where 
is  the  Ozark  Plateau  ? 

10.  Which  states  have  Gulf 
Plains?  II.  W'hat  kind  of  plains 
are  there  in  Arkansas,  Louisiana, 
and  a  part  of  Mississippi?  12.  Why  is  the  lower 
course  of  the  Mississippi  above  the  level  of  the 
surrounding  country?  13.  How  are  the  near-by 
lowlands  protected  ?  14.  How  are  the  states  of 
this  group  drained  ? 

15.  Where  is  the  heavy  rainfall  of  the  South 
Central  States  ?  The  light  rainfall  ?  16.  Why  is 
the  water  often  low  in  the  rivers  of  western  Texas  ? 

133-  Agriculture. — -With  plenty  of 
moisture,  tew  frosts,  and  a  fine,  rich 
soil,  this  is  a  wonderful  agricultural 
region.     Of  the  many  crops   raised,  cot- 


Kig.   JU8.     Traiiiload  of  cotton  on  its  way  to  Mobile,  Alabama 


ton,  sugar,  rice,  and   corn  are  especially 
important. 

Cotton  is  the  chief  crop  of  the  South 
Central  States,  as  large  amounts  of  it 
are  raised  in  every  state  in  the  group  ex- 
cept Kentucky.  There  the  summers  are 
hardly  long  enough  for  a  full  crop  to  ripen. 
Texas  is  the  leading  cotton  state.  It 
holds  this  position  in  part  because  of  its 
great  size ;  it  is  by  far  the  largest  state  in 
the  Union.  When  the  cotton  is  ready  to 
pick,  thousands  of  men 
and  women  can  be  seen 
at  work  in  the  fields. 
Each  one  picks  from  two 
rows  and  puts  the  lint 
into  a  long  bag  fastened 
to  the  back. 

Most  of  the  sugar  cane 
raised  in  our  country  is 
grown  in  Louisiana.  The 
cane  grows  to  a  height 
of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
feet  (Fig.  209).  When 
it  is  crushed,  it  yields 
the  sweetish  juice  from 
which  sugar  and  molasses 
are  made. 


I20 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


Rice  is  a  plant  that  looks  much  like 
wheat,  and  produces  a  head  of  many  little 
grains  as  the  wheat  plant  does.  It  needs 
a  great  deal  of  water,  and  the  best  rice 
is  grown  on  fields  that  can  be  flooded  at 
the  time  of  planting  and  at  other  times 
during  the  growing  season.  Louisiana, 
Texas,  and  Arkansas  are  great  rice- 
growing  states.  The  crop  is  cultivated 
chiefly  in  level  lowlands  where  the  fields 
can  be  irrigated  (Fig.  210).  The  plow- 
ing, har\^esting,  and  threshing  are  done 
in  much  the  same  way  as  on  the  great 
wheat  farms  (Sec.  23). 

Kentucky  raises  more  tobacco  than 
any  other  state  (Fig.  211).  Louisville, 
the  chief  city  of 
Kentucky,  is  a  great 
market  and  manu- 
facturing center 
for  tobacco.  Cov- 
ington, connected 
by  several  bridges 
across  the  Ohio 
River  with  the 
great  city  of  Cin- 
cinnati in  southern 
Ohio,  also  has  large  tobacco  factories. 

Corn   is   an   important   crop    in   every 
state  of  the  group,   and   much  wheat   is 


£%;£ 


i 


Fi^.   212.     Cattle  in  the  grazing  region  ot  Texas 


Fig.   210.     A  rice  field  in  the  South 


Kig.  211.     Piles  ol  lobiKCO  in  u  wiirehouse,  Kentucky 


raised    in   Oklahoma,    Texas,   Tennessee. 
and  Kentucky. 

134.    Grazing. — In  western  Texas  and 
Oklahoma    there    is   not    enough   rainfall 

for  agriculture,  al- 
though there  is 
enough  for  grass. 
In  parts  of  this 
grazing  region  the 
cattle  farms  or 
ranches  are  fenced. 
Over  the  larger 
pastures  or  ranges 
of  the  great  western 
plains,  cattle  be- 
longing to  many  owners  roam  together 
(Fig.  212).  They  are  watched  and  cared 
for  by  men,  called  cozvhoys,  who  live  out 
of  doors  and  spend  much  of  their  time  on 
horseback. 

Kvery  cattle  owner  has  his  own  mark 
with  which  he  brands  his  young  cattle 
each  year.  This  is  usually  done  at  the 
round-up,  when  the  cattle  are  all  driven 
together.  The  unbranded  calves  are 
caught,  and  a  red-hot  iron  is  used  to  burn 
the  brand  into  the  skin.  One  of  the 
chief  trade  centers  for  the  cattle  country 
is  ^an  Jiitovio,  the  largest  city  of  Texas. 
Kacli  year  the  cattle  that  are  ready  for 
the  market  are  sent  to  some  large  city 


TIIK   SOUTH   CEN'IRAL   STATES 


121 


to  be  slaughtered.  Among  the  cities  of 
the  South  Central  States  engaged  in  this 
industry  are  Dallas  and  Fort  Jf'orth, 
lexas,  and  Oklahoma  City,  Oklahoma. 
Slaughtering  is  also  an  important  industry 
in  a  number  of  cities  in  the  North  Central 
States. 

135.  Mining,  Lumbering,  and  Manu- 
facturing.— Coal  and  iron  are  found  in 
nearly  every  state  in  this  group.  The  large 
beds  of  coal  in  eastern  Kentucky,  in  Ten- 
nessee, and  in  northern  Alabama  belong 
to  the  Appalachian  coal  field  (Fig.  179). 
The  coal  field  in  western  Kentucky,  how- 
ever, furnishes  more 
than  half  of  the  coal 
mined  in  that  state. 
There  are  large  iron 
mines  in  Tennessee 
and  Alabama. 

Birmingham,  Ala- 
bama, is  situated 
w  here  both  coal  and 
iron  can  be  easily 
obtained,  and  it  has 
become  the  chief 
iron  and  steel  center 
of  the  South.  Chattanooga  and  Knoxville 
in  Tennessee  are  also  near  the  iron  and 
coal  fields,  and  manufacture  iron  and  steel. 


1  i;;    J 1 5.    Lumber  yard,  Chattanooga,  Tennessee 


Fig.   213.     Oil  wells,  Oklahoma 


Fig.  214.     Loading  Freeport  Eulphur  Company's  steamer  with 
sulphur  for  foreign  markets,  Freeport,  Texas 


There    are    many    petroleum    wells    in 
Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Oklahoma,  and  the 

output  is  very  large 
(Fig.  213).  Louisi- 
ana and  Texas  pro- 
duce most  of  the 
world's  supply  of 
sulphur  (Fig.  214). 
There  are  cy- 
press forests  in  the 
swampy  lowlands, 
pine  forests  in  the 
sandy  plains  and 
uplands,  and  hard- 
wood forests  in  the 
highlands.  Lumbering  is  a  leading  in- 
dustry in  the  South  Central  States  (Fig. 
215).  Memphis,  in  Tennessee,  is  one  of 
the  large  lumber  markets 
of  the  country.  Nashville, 
the  capital  of  Tennessee, 
and  Shreveport,  Louisiana, 
are  also  important  lumber 
markets. 

Cotton  seed  was  at  one 
time  thought  to  have  very 
little  value.  After  the  seed 
had  been  separated  from 
the  lint  by  the  gin,  the 
planter  saved  enough  seed 
for  his  new  crop  and  threw 


122 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


the  rest  away.  The  seed  is  now  saved 
for  the  oil  that  it  contains  ;  and  when  the 
oil  has  been  pressed  out,  the  cake  that  is 
left  is  fed  to  stock  or  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fertilizer.  Mills  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cottonseed  oil  are  found  through- 
out the  cotton-growing  regions. 

136.  Cities  and  Commerce.  —  New 
Or/^an5,  Louisiana  (Fig.  20^), Galveston  and 
Houston,  Texas,  and  Mobile,  Alabama,  are 
the  principal  seaports  of  the  South  Cen- 
tral States.     All  of  them  export  cotton. 

New  Orleans  is  about  one  hundred  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  (Fig. 
2o6).  The  river  channel  is  deep  enough 
for  large  ocean  steamships  to  reach  its 
wharves.  The  smaller  river  boats  carry 
passengers  and  freight  between  New  Or- 
leans and  cities  as  far  away  as  Pittsburgh, 
Kansas  City,  and  St.  Paul.  Trace  the 
routes  to  these  cities  on  the  map  (Fig. 
150).  In  Figure  147  notice  the  railroads 
leading  to  New  Orleans. 

Galveston  ships  more  cotton  than  any 
other  port  in  the  world,  and  has  also  an 
extensive  foreign  trade  in  grain,  hides, 
lumber,  and  cattle. 

The  government  has  deepened  and 
straightened  the  channel  from  Houston 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  the  city  has  built 
wharves,  and   has  become  an   important 


port.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  cotton  and 
rice. 

Little  Rock,  the  capital  and  largest  city 
of  Arkansas,  is  a  trade  center  and  manu- 
factures  cottonseed  oil   and   lumber. 

Meridian,  in  Mississippi,  is  a  cotton 
market,  and  the  chief  manufacturing  city 
of  the  state. 

Review  of  Sections  133  to  136. —  i.  What 
are  the  four  important  crops  of  the  South  Central 
States  ?  2.  Which  state  raises  the  most  cotton  .? 
3.  Which  state  raises  little  cotton.?     Why? 

4.  Where  is  sugar  cane  raised  .''  5.  Where  is 
rice  grown  t     On  what  kind  of  land  is  it  grown  .' 

6.  Where  is  corn  grown  in  this  group  of  states  ? 
Wheat .? 

7.  For  what  crop  is  Kentucky  noted  .?  8.  What 
large  city  is  noted  as  a  market  and  manufac- 
turmg  center  for  this  crop  .'' 

9.  Where  are  the  grazing  regions  of  Texas  and 
Oklahoma  .''  Why  are  they  used  for  grazing .? 
10.  How  are  the  cattle  cared  for  on  the  unfenced 
ranges.''  11.  How  does  each  owner  know  his 
own  cattle.?  12.  What  is  done  with  the  cattle 
when  they  are  ready  for  market  ? 

13.  Where  are  the  coal  beds  in  this  group  of 
states  ?  The  iron  mines  ?  14.  What  city  in 
this  group  of  states  leads  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel?  15.  Name  two  other  cities  that 
are  engaged  in  this  industry. 

16.  Where  is  petroleum  f  und  ?  Sulphur? 
17.  Where  are  the  forests?  18.  Vhat  cities  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  kuii'  'r? 

19.  Name  four  imjiortant  C'lulf  ports.  20.  How 
is  it  possible  for  ocean  steamers  to  reach  New 
Orleans  ?  21.  Name  an  important  city  in  Missis- 
sippi; in  Oklahoma;  in  Arkansas. 


Fig.  216.     Sea  wall  at  Galveston 


THE   NORTFI   CENTRAL   STATES 


Fi^     - 1 7.     A  cornfield  in  Ohio.     The  com  has  been  cut  and  gathered  in  shocks 


J 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  STATES 

137.  Map  Study. — The  group  of  twelve 
North  Central  States  is  more  than  eleven 
times  as  large  as  New  England. 

Five  states  are  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
They  are  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Alichi- 
gan,  and  Jf'isconsiji.  Six  states  —  Iowa, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South  Da- 
kota, and  North  Dakota  —  are  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  Minnesota  is  the  only  state 
in  the  group  lying  on  both  sides  of  the 
river.  On  the  map  (Fig.  218)  show  where 
the  Mississippi  has  its  source. 

Which  states  are  bordered  by  one  or 
more  of  the  Great  Lakes  ?  Which  states 
are  bordered  by  the  Ohio  River  .^  By  the 
Mississippi  River  ?  Which  are  bordered 
or  crossed  by  the  Missouri  River  ? 

138.  Surface  and  Drainage. — Most  of 
this   part  of  our  country  is  a  region  of 


plains  which  are  almost  level  or  gently 
rolling.  In  the  far  west,  where  they 
meet  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, they  reach  a  much  greater  eleva- 
tion than  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
group. 

There  are,  however,  some  highland 
areas  in  northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  Minnesota.  The  southeastern  part 
of  Ohio  is  hilly  where  the  Appalachian 
Plateau  reaches  into  that  state.  There 
are  some  rugged  mountains,  known  as 
the  Black  Hills,  in  the  western  part  of 
South  Dakota  ;  and  a  highland,  known  as 
the  Ozark  Plateau,  in  southern  Mis- 
souri (Fig.  218), 

On  the  plains  the  soil  is  usually  fine, 
deep,  and  fertile.  It  is  especially  fine 
in  the  river  flood  plains,  and  in  regions 
where  the  soil  was  formed  by  the  break- 
ing up  of  the   rocks   beneath   (Sec.    14). 


Fig.  218 
Physical  and  Political 

North  Central  States 

Scale  of  Statute  Miles 

IW eoo 


114   MILES   TO   ONE    INCH 

Capitals  of  States  thus;  ® 

ELEVATIONS  IN  fEET  L 


1000  TO  20O0 
000  TO  1000 


126 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


In  regions  once  covered  by  the  great 
glacier  that  spread  over  the  northern 
part  of  our  country  many  thousands  of 
years  ago,  the  soil  was  mixed  with  bro- 
ken and  ground-up  rock.  In  some  places, 
when  the  ice  finally  melted,  heaps  and 
ridges  of  earth  and  broken  stone  were 
left  (Fig.  219).  During  the  thousands 
of  years  that  passed  after  the  glacier 
melted  and  before  settlers  came,  the 
decaying  leaves  and  grass  added  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 

Nearly  all  this  region  belongs  to  the 
basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  most  of  the 
large  streams  flow  directly  into  that 
river  or  into  one  of  its  great  tributaries, 
the  Ohio  and  the  Missouri.  There  is  a 
small  area  that  drains  northward  to 
Hudson  Bay,  and  anotlier  area  tliat 
drains  to  the  Great  Lakes  (Fig.  135). 

The  Mississippi  with  its  tributaries 
furnishes  a  convenient  water  route  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  Great  Lakes  are  connected  with  the 
north  y\tlaiitic,  l)()rh  through  tlie  St. 
Lawrence  Ri\(T  .ind  through  tiie  Frie 
Barge  Can.  1 1  .ind  \\\v  lludson  River. 

Goods  that  are  to  go  by  canal  .iiid  the 
Hudson  to  New  York  are  transferred 
from   ships    to    canal    barges  at    Miiffaio. 


If  they  are  to  go  to 
Europe,  they  must  be 
once  more  shifted  into 
large  ships  at  New  York. 
139.  Climate  and  Agri- 
culture.— In  every  region 
as  large  as  this,  there  are 
differences  in  the  temper- 
ature and  rainfall  of  its 
various  parts.  Through- 
out this  whole  region  the 
summers  are  hot  and  the 
winters  are  cold ;  but 
the  winters  are  colder  and  last  longer  in 
the  northern  part  than  in  the  southern. 
The  rainfall  is  greater  in  the  southern  part 
than  in  the  northern,  and  much  greater 
in  the  eastern   part  than  in  the  western 

(Fig-  145)- 

Several  causes  unite  to  make  this  one 
of  the  greatest  agricultural  regions  in 
the  world  :  (i)  The  fields  are  nearly 
level,  and  most  of  the  soil  is  fine  and 
easily  cultivated.  (2)  The  soil  is  deep 
and  rich.  (3)  The  summers  are  long 
enough  and  warm  enough  for  the  growth 
of  crops.  (4)  Except  in  the  far  western 
part  there  is  rainfall  enough  and  at  the 
right  time  in  the  year  for  the  growth 
of  crops.  (5)  There  is  a  market  for  all 
the  food  products  that  can  possibly 
be  raised.  (6)  Two  great  water  routes 
reach  into  the  very  heart  of  this  region, 
so  that  the  products  can  be  shipped 
easily  and  cheaply  to  the  people  who 
need  them. 

Corn  is  the  most  valuable  single  crop 
raised  in  the  United  States.  For  its 
most  successful  growth  it  needs  heavy 
rains  from  time  to  time  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  and  w  ,mn  sunny  days  between. 
Some  corn  is  grown  in  every  group  of 
states.     The    great    corn    states    of    the 


THE   NORTfl    CENTRAL   STATES 


127 


Fig.  220.     Corn-growing  regions  of  the  United  States 


Fig.  221.     Wheat-growing  regions  of  the  United  States 


country,  however,  are  Iowa,  Illinois,  Mis- 
souri, Indiana,  Ohio,  Nehraska,  and  Kan- 
sas, all  in  the  North  Central  group  (Figs. 
217,  220).  These  seven  states  alone  raise 
more  than  half  of  all  the  corn  grown  in 
the  United  States. 

Wheat  is  grown  in  many  parts  of  our 
country,  but  chieHy  where  there  is  a  good 
soil  and  where  it  is  not  too  warm.  Among 
the  great  wheat  states  are  North  Dakota, 
Kansas,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  South  Da- 
kota, and  Illinois.  Wheat  is  grown  in 
all  the  other  North  Central  states  also. 
This  group  of  states  produces  two  thirds 
of  all  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  wheat  regions,  much  of 
the  planting  and  harvesting  is  done  by 
machinery  (Sec.  23).  Minneapolis  in 
Minnesota  is  the  greatest  flour-manu- 
facturing center.  Much  wheat  and  flour 
are  sent  to  eastern  markets  through 
Chicago,  Illinois,  Duluth,  Minnesota,  Su- 
perior, Wisconsin,  and   Toledo,  Ohio. 

Among  the  other  crops  of  importance 
are  hay  and  oats,  needed  for  the  cattle 
and  horses ;  and  vegetables  and  fruits, 
grown  chiefly  for  home  use  and  for  city 
markets.  Beets  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sugar  are  grown  in  Michigan, 
especially  in  the  region  around  the  city 


of  Saginaw.  They  are  also  grown  in 
some  of  the  other  states  of  the  group. 
Tobacco  is  grown  in  Ohio.  In  the  two 
Dakotas  and  in  Minnesota  a  large  amount 
of  flax  is  grown  for  the  seed,  which  is 
used  in  making  linseed  oil. 

Review  of  Sections  137  to  139. — i.  How  many 
states  are  in  the  North  Central  group  ?  2.  Name 
those  that  are  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Those 
that  are  west.  3.  Which  states  border  on  the 
Great  Lakes  .?     On  the  Ohio  River  ? 

4.  Describe  the  surface  of  this  region. 
5.  Where  are  the  highlands  ?  6.  What  kind 
of  soil  is  found  on  the  plams  ? 

7.  To  what  great  river  basin  does  most  of  this 
region  belong .''  S.  What  part  drains  into  the 
Great  Lakes.?  Into  Hudson  Bay.?  9.  What 
great  water  routes  connect  this  region  with  the 
Atlantic  ?  10.  On  the  route  to  New  York,  where 
are  goods  changed  from  one  boat  to  another.? 

II.  Where  is  the  rainfall  heavy.?  Light? 
12.    Where  are  the  coldest  winters  ? 

13.  What  are  the  causes  that  help  to  make  this 
a  great  agricultural  region  .?  14.  What  does  corn 
need  for  the  best  growth.?  15.  Which  states 
grow  much  corn?  Much  wheat?  16.  Name 
some  other  crops  of  importance.  17.  Name  a 
great  flour-manufacturing  city. 

140.  Cattle  Raising  and  Meat  Packing. 
— Many  farmers  in  the  North  Central 
States  keep  dairy  cows.  There  are  cities 
to  be  supplied  with  milk,  and  this  region 
produces  also  much  butter  and  cheese. 


128 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


In  the  far  western  part  of  this  group 
there  are  extensive  grazing  regions,  with 
great  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Many 
of  the  pastures  are  fenced.  There  is 
not  much  snow  in  the  grazing  region, 
and  sometimes  the  cattle  are  left  out  of 
doors  during  the  winter  to  feed  upon  the 
grass,  which  dries  like  hay  without  being 
cut.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  has  been 
found  more  profitable  to  provide  shelter 
for  the  stock  and  to  feed  them  regularly. 

The  farmers  find  that  it  often  pays 
better  to  feed  their  corn  to  stock  than 
to  sell  it.  For  this  reason  many  hogs 
and  cattle  are  fattened  on  the  farms. 
Thcv  are  then  sent  either  to  some  neigh- 
boring city  to  be  slaughtered  for  meat, 
or  are  shipped  alive  (on  the  hoof)  to 
eastern  markets.  Much  of  the  fresh 
meat  prepared  in  the  packing 
houses  of  Chicago,  Omaha, 
Kansas  City,  and  St.  Louis  is 
sent  to  eastern  markets  in 
refrigerator  cars. 

The  meat  packers  have 
found  some  use  for  every 
part  of  the  slaughtered  ani- 
mal. The  hides  are  made  into 
leather,  and  even  rlie  bones 
and  bristles  are  valuable. 


141.  Forests  and  the  Man- 
ufactures of  Wood. — In  Ohio 
and  Indiana  most  of  the  land 
was  once  covered  with  trees. 
There,  as  in  the  East,  the  early 
settlers  found  it  necessary  to 
clear  away  the  forests  before  they 
could  cultivate  the  land.  The 
trees  were  in  the  way  and  many 
were  burned. 

Beyond  Indiana  the  settlers 
tound  a  country  of  broad  grassy 
plains,  or  prairies,  with  few 
forests  except  along  the  streams  and  on 
the  uplands.  At  first  they  did  not  think 
that  the  prairie  soil  was  fit  for  cultiva- 
tion, and  they  settled  in  the  timbered 
lands  along  the  streams.  Then  they 
learned  that  the  prairie  land  was  very 
fertile,  and  the  remaining  forests  were 
for  a  time  undisturbed.  In  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  great  demand  for  lumber. 
Much  of  the  timber  has  been  cut  away, 
and  the  small  forests  that  are  left  in 
the  North  Central  States  have  become 
very  valuable.  Lumbering  is  still  an 
important  industry.  In  many  of  the 
cities  of  this  group  there  are  large  lumber 
mills  and  factories  manufacturing  articles 
of  wood.  Grand  Rapids,  in  western  Mich- 
igan, is  especially  noted  for  its  manu- 
facture of  furniture. 


^k.'ii'-^Sj 


Fig.  223.     Log  jam  in  a  Wisconsin  river 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL  STATES 


129 


Fig.  224.     Loading  iron  ore  at  a  Minnesota  port 


142.  Mines  and  Manufactures 
of  Metal. —  1  he  iron  mines  in  the 
Lake  Superior  district  of  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota 
are  tlie  hirgest  and  most  produc- 
tive in  our  country.  A  part  of 
the  ore  is  dug  from  deep  mines ; 
but  much  is  scooped  up  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth  with  big  steam 
shovels.  The  ore  from  tliis  region 
is  sent  east  from  Duluth  and  Su- 
perior and  from  several  other 
cities  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. At  these  ports  the  ore 
is  loaded  on  boats  (Fig.  224)  and 
sent  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  or  some  other  sorts.  The  wooden  parts  of  the  agricul- 
city  on  or  near  the  lakes  (Fig.  225),  to  be    tural   implements   may   be   made  in  the 

same  factories  as  the  iron  and  steel  parts, 
or  they  may  be  made  in  other  factories 
that  make  things  of  wood  only  (Sec.  141). 
Northern  Michigan  is  one  of  the  great 
copper-producing  sections  of  the  world. 
This  metal  is  used  in  hundreds  of  ways, 
but  especially  for  all  kinds  of  electrical 
machinery,  and  for  telegraph,  telephone, 
and  trolley  wires. 

Coal  is  found  in  many  of  these  states, 
but  the  chief  coal  beds  are 
in  the  southern  part  of  the 
group  (Fig.  179).  Evans- 
ville,  Indiana,  Springfield, 
Illinois,  and  Des  Moines, 
Iowa,  are  three  of  the 
cities  that  are  situated  in 
coal-mining  regions.  Illi- 
nois, Kansas,  Ohio,  and 
Indiana  have  many  pe- 
troleum wells  and  wells 
yielding  natural  gas. 
Coal,  petroleum,  and  gas 
are  used  as  fuel,  and 
the  gas  is  also  used  for 
lighting. 


LJiiiAuihm 


r'-j!l5r_ 


Fig.  225.     Unloading  ore  by  machinery  at  Cleveland 


smelted.  Much  of  the 
iron  ore  unloaded  at  Lake 
Erie  ports  is  sent  inland 
by  rail  to  Yoiingstozvn  or 
to  Pittsburgh  (Sec.  119). 

After  the  ore  has  been 
smelted  (Fig.  226),  the 
iron  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  great  many 
articles.  Among  them  are 
locomotives,  steel  rails, 
steel  cars,  iron  ships,  au- 
tomobiles, and  the  iron 
and  steel  parts  of  farming 
tools  and  machinery  of  all 


Fig.  226.     Blast  furnace 


130 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


Gold  is  mined  in  the  Black  Hills 
of  South  Dakota,  lead  in  Missouri, 
and  zinc  in  Missouri  and  Wisconsin. 
Michigan  produces  more  salt  than 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  Lime- 
stone and  clay,  used  in  making 
cement,  and  finer  clays,  suitable  for 
making  pottery  and  tiles,  are  found 
in  many  places.  Ohio  is  the  lead- 
ing state  in  the  Union  in  the  pro- 
duction of  ])ottery. 

Review  of  Sections  140  to  142. — i.  What 
products  coini;  from  dairying  regions? 
2.  Where  are  the  grazing  regions  of  the 
North  Centra!  group  ?  3.  How  are  hogs 
and  cattle  fattened  ?  4.  What  is  then 
done  with  them  ?  -^711 

5-  Where  did  the  early  settlers  of  the  North  M3-     Manufacturing.  —  You     have     al- 

Central  region  find  forests  ?    6.  Why  did  they     ready  studied  some  of  the  kinds  of  manu- 
cut  down  some  of  them  ?   Why  not  all  ?    7.  What     facturing  that  are  carried  on  in  the  North 

is    now    being    done    with    the    forests    of    this      /^      ^      1  •  t^i  •  i  1 

5    o    1,7,  ,         r-       1  D      J   5       Central  region.      1  here  is  an  abundance 

region  i^     8.    What   is  made  at  (jrand  Rapids.'^  " 

In  which   states  are  the  great  iron  mines.?      ot    raw    material    in    the    products    of   the 

Power 


41^ 

^ 

1 

SBsKJ^^^^K 

J 

u 

-T» 

i 

v^^^^^^^2H|| 

u 

j^ 

m 

s^-.:..  ^S///m 

^^^n 

M 

B 

•^  iJNH^^^^^^^H 

1^ 

F 

!! 

w 

Fig.  227.     Flour  mills  at  Minneapolis 


regi 

9.   in  wnicn  states  are  the  great  iron  mines 
How  is  the  iron  mined  ?     10.  Where  is  the  ore      fields,  the  forests,  and  the  mines 
taken   to   be   smelted.?     11     Name   some   large     jg   furnished   by  waterfalls  and   by  coal, 

articles  made  from  iron  and  steel.  ,  ,  ,  , 

crude  petroleum,  and  natural  gas 


12.  Where  are  the  copper  mines.?     For  what  is 
copper  used  .? 

13.  Where  are  the  important  coal  fields  .? 

14.  What    other     fuels     are     found     in     these 
states  .? 

15.  Where  is  gold  mined.?      Lead.?      Zinc? 

16.  What  uses  arc  mat 


There 
is  a  large  population  to  do  the  work  of 
manufacturing  and  to  make  use  of  the 
manufactured  articles ;  and  there  are 
good  water  routes  and  plenty  of  railroads 
le  of  days .?     Limestone.?     for   sending   the   manufactured   goods   to 

distant  markets. 

The  wheat,  corn, 
and  other  grains 
furnish  the  raw  ma- 
terial for  use  in  the 
Hour  mills  (Fig.  227) 
nnd  breakfast  food 
factories.  The  rais- 
ing of  orchard  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  ber- 
ries has  led  to  the 
growth  of  an  exten- 
sive canning  industry 
(Fig.  228). 


Fig.   228.     FilliiiK  unci  capping  cans  in  a  canning  factory,  Indinna 


THE   NORTH   CENTRAL   STATES 


131 


Some  of  the  wool  from  the  sheep 
ranches  is  made  into  cloth,  and  the  hides 
of  the  cattle  and  sheep  are  made  into 
shoes  and  other  kinds  of  leather  goods. 
The  dairying,  meat-packing,  and  iron- 
manufacturing  industries  have  already 
been  studied  (^Secs.  140,  142). 
'  In  this  great  farming  section  many 
agricultural  tools  and  machines  are 
needed,  and  the  wood  and  iron  necessary 
for  their  manufacture  are  close  at  hand. 
Ihe  articles  made  include  plows,  har- 
rows, reaping  machines,  threshing  ma-  first  importance  in  Michigan.  Detroit 
chines,  carriages,  and  wagons.  Among  has  grown  to  be  the  largest  automobile- 
the  cities  where  this  industry  is  carried  on  manufacturing  center  in  the  world  (Fig. 
are  Columbus  and  Dayton  in  Ohio  ;   Evans-     230).       Flint  and   La)ising    in    Michigan, 


ville,  Indianapolis,  Fort  Ji'ayne,  and  South 
Brnd  in  Indiana  ;  and  Chicago,  Peoria, 
and  Springfield  in   Illinois  (Fig.  229). 

The  forests  also  furnish  lumber  for 
all  kinds  of  building,  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  pulp  and  paper. 

One   of   the    newer    industries    in    this 


Fndianapolis  and  South  Bend  in  Indiana, 
as  well  as  Toledo  in  Ohio  and  many  other 
cities,  are  engaged  in  this  industry.  Ak- 
ron. Ohio,  is  an  important  center  for  the 
manufacture  of  automobile  tires. 

144.    Routes  of  Trade  and  the  Cities. — 
In   addition   to  the  natural  trade  routes 


group    of   states    is    the    manufacture    of     offered  by  the  Mississippi  and  its   tribu- 
automobiles.     This  industry  has  reached     taries,   and   the  Great   Lakes  with   their 

eastern  connections,  there  are  many 
railroads.  The  map  (Fig.  147) 
shows  that  the  railroads  are  as 
close  together  here  as  in  any  part 
of  the  country. 

Chic'ago,  the  second  city  in  size 
in  the  United  States,  is  located  near 
the  southern  end  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan. Through  the  Great  Lakes 
it  is  connected  not  only  with  the 
city  of  New  York  but,  by  way  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  with  all  the  sea- 
ports of  the  world.  A  small  river 
that  enters  the  lake  at  Chicago 
has  been  deepened  for  a  harbor 
and  connected  by  a  canal  with  the 
Illinois  River,  and  so  with  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


Fig.  229.     Casting  mower  wheels,  harvester  works,  Chicago 


132 


THE  UNITED   STATES 


iri  DtlroU  Puhliilnnu  ti 

Fig.  231.     State  Street,  Chicago 


On  the  Ohio  River, 
the  great  eastern  tribu- 
tary of  the  Mississippi, 
the  chief  city  of  the 
North  Central  group  is 
Cincinnati.  It  is  a 
center  for  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing, 
shoes,  pottery,  tobacco, 
iron,  and  steel. 

Some  distance  north 
of  the  junction  of  the 
Mississippi  and  Ohio 
rivers,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Mississippi,  is 
St.  Louis.  Only  a  few 
miles  north  of  St.  Louis 


Railway  lines  from 
all  parts  of  the  country 
enter  Chicago.  Its  lo- 
cation has  made  it  the 
chief  city  in  the  central 
part  of  the  country. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs 
are  sent  to  its  stock- 
yards in  vast  numbers, 
and  it  has  become  the 
chief  meat-packing  cen- 
ter of  the  world.  Its 
manufactures  include 
agricultural  tools,  cars, 
and  clothing,  and  its 
elevators  handle  an 
enormous  amount  of 
grain  on  its  way  to  the  flour  mills  or  to  the  Mississippi  is  joined  by  its  great  west- 
eastern  markets.  ern  tributary,  the  NJissouri.  St.  Louis 
Farther  north,  on  the  western  side  of  is  therefore  in  a  position  to  carry  on  trade 
the  lake,  is  Milwaukee,  the  chief  city  of  with  the  cities  and  towns  along  the  banks 
Wisconsin.     Here  are  extensive  manufac-     o\  both  rivers. 

tures  of  leather  and  flour,  and  also  brew-  Added  importance  has  been  given  to 
eries  and  packing  houses.  Other  lake  its  location  by  the  building  of  great 
ports  include  Diduth  and  Superior  (Sees,  bridges  across  the  Mississippi  (Fig.  232). 
139,  142),  Detroit  (Sec.  143),  Toledo  (Sees.  Over  them  the  railroads  from  eastern 
139,  143),  and  Cleveland  (Sec.  142).  As  points  cross,  and  connect  with  those 
Cleveland  is  easily  supplied  with  both  from  the  west,  northwest,  and  south- 
coal  and  iron,  it  has  become  an  important     west. 

city  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel.         St.  Louis  has  naturally  become  a  grain 

and  meat-packing  cen- 
ter. It  also  has  large 
manufacturing  indus- 
tries, including  the 
maiuifacture  of  shoes, 
tobacco,  street  cars, 
and  railroad  cars. 
East  St.  Louis,  across 
the  river  in  Illinois,  is 
a  great  railroad  center, 
and  has  large  stock- 
yards and  meat-pack- 
ing establishments. 


t 


*i(4}""  ' 


Fig.  232.     Slcumlxxil  unci  l>riclgc  al  St.  Louis 


THE   NOR  111    CKNTRAL   STATES 


133 


Fig.  233.     Stockyards  at  Omaha,  Nebraska 


At  Kfokiik,  Iowa,  a  great  dam  has 
been  built  across  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  falling  water  is  used  to  develop  elec- 
trical energy  which  is  carried  by  wires  to 
St.  Louis  and  other  cities  to  furnish  light 
and  power. 

On  the  Mississippi  farther  north  are 
the  "  Twin  Cities  "  of  Minnesota,  Minne- 
apolis (Sec.  139)  and  St.  Paul.  They  are 
important  trading  centers  for  a  large 
surrounding  country.  The  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony,  in  the  river  at  this  point  (Fig. 
234),  furnish  an  abundance  of  power  for 
manufacturing  uses.  St.  Paul  is  the  cap- 
ital of  Minnesota  and  has  long  been  a 
center  of  trade  with  the  Northwest. 

On  the  Missouri  River  there  are  several 
important  cities.  They  include  the  two 
cities,  each  called  Kansas  City,  one  in 
Missouri  and  the  other  in  Kansas ;  St. 
Joseph,  Missouri, 
Omaha,  Nebraska, 
and  Sionx  City, 
Iowa.  All  these  cit- 
ies are  in  or  near 
the  regions  where 
cattle  are  raised  and 
fattened,  and  arc- 
engaged  largely  in 
meat  packing  (Fig. 
233),  and  in  trade 
with  the  surround- 
ing agricultural   re- 


gion. Sio7ix  Falls,  South  Dakota,  and 
Fargo,  North  Dakota,  are  in  the  wheat- 
growing  region  and  have  large  flour  mills. 

Review  of  Sections  143  and  144. — i.  What 
conditions  help  to  make  the  North  Central 
States  a  manufacturing  region  ?  2.  What  are  the 
manufactures  from  the  products  of  the  fields  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  tools 
and  machines  in  this  region  so  important  ?  Name 
three  cities  where  they  are  made.  4.  Where  are 
automobiles  made  r 

5.  What  routes  of  trade  other  than  waterways 
has  this  region  ? 

6.  How  has  the  location  of  Chicago  helped  its 
growth  ?  7.  Name  some  of  its  important  indus- 
tries. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  manufactures  of  Mil- 
waukee ?  9.  Name  some  other  ports  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  10.  In  what  manufacturing  industry 
does  Detroit  take  first  rank  .^  II.  Why  did 
Cleveland  take  up  the  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel  goods  ? 

12.  Locate  Cincinnati.     13.  What  are  some  of 


Its 


idustr 


14. 


Fig.  234.     Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  Minneapohs 


Where  is  St.  Louis  ? 
15.  What  are  some  of 
the  advantages  of  its 
position  ?  16.  Name 
two  of  its  important 
industries. 

17.  Where  are  St. 
Paul  and  Minneapolis? 
18.  For  what  industry 
is  Minneapolis  noted? 
What  advantages  does 
the  city  have  for  that 
industry  ? 

19.  Name  four  meat- 
packing centers  on  the 
Missouri  River.  In  what 
state  is  each? 


Fit'.  23S  V  \ 
Phyaicai  and  Political 

Plateau  States 

ScaU  of  BUOuto  im«n  ^ 


l*>  HJLU  to  DMf    IMON 
O^tal  of  ttU*M  Ihu:  a^ 


II''     Iy>n(c<tuil< 


Cfpnwlrh        1 1ll" 


>34 


THE   PLATEAU   STATES 


135 


Fig.  236.     Railroad  crossing  a  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado 


THE   PLATEAU   STATES 

145.  Position.  —  The  states  of  the 
Plateau  group  (Fig.  235)  stretch  in  a 
broad  belt  from  the  northern  to  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  the  United  States.  Four 
of  them  —  Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado, 
and  Xrzv  Mexico  —  lie  partly  in  the  basin 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  other  four 
—  Idaho,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Arizona  — 
lie  entirely  in  the  Cordilleran  region. 

How  do  these  states  compare  in  size 
with  the  state  in  which  you  live  } 

146.  Surface  and  Drainage.  —  The 
plains  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  gradually 
increase  in  height  toward  the  west  until 
they  reach  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  eastern  border  of  the  Plateau 
States  is  included  in  the  Great  Plains. 
West  of  these  plains,  and  extending  across 
the  Plateau  States  in  a  northwest  and 
southeast  direction,  are  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, forming   the   eastern   part  of  the 


Cordilleras.  They  are  not  one  single 
range,  but  are  made  up  of  several  ranges. 
There  are  many  passes,  or  low  places,  in 
these  mountain  ranges.  Through  some 
of  them,  railroads  have  been  built,  to  join 
the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the 
country  (Fig.  236). 

West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  there 
are  high  plateaus  in  Idaho,  Colorado, 
Utah,  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico. 
The  plateaus  in  many  places  are  higher 
than  any  of  the  .Appalachian  ranges,  and 
the  ranges  and  peaks  rise  several  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  plateaus. 

A  part  of  the  drainage  of  the  Plateau 
States  reaches  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through 
the  Mississippi  River  and  through  the 
Rio  Grande.  Another  part  reaches  the 
Pacific  Ocean  through  the  Columbia 
River  in  the  north,  and  through  the 
Colorado  River  and  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia in  the  south.  Find  these  rivers 
on  the  map  (Fig.  150). 


136 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


r 


Fig.  237.     Great  Salt  Lake 


'  In  Nevada  and  Utah  is  a  region  called 
the  Great  Basin.  Its  drainage  has  no 
outlet  to  the  sea.  The  rainfall  is  light. 
The  evaporation  from  the  water  surfaces 
is  very  rapid,  and  some  of  the  streams 
gradually  dry  up  or  end  in  swampy 
places  called  sinks.  Other  streams  flow 
into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet.  In  these 
lakes  the  water  that  evaporates  from 
year  to  year  about  balances  the  amount 
brought  in  by  the  streams. 

Such  lakes  are  salt.  The  water  that 
flows  into  the  lake  has  a  little  salt  dis- 
solved in  it,  and  as  it  evaporates  the  salt 
is  left  behind.  Therefore  the  water  of  the 
lake  gradually  becomes  very  salt.  The 
largest  lake  of  the  Great  Basin  is  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  (Fig.  237). 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  people  bath- 
ing in  this  lake.  The  water  is  so  heavy 
with  salt  that  they  cannot  sink.  Even 
those  who  do  not  swim  are  in  no  danger. 

147.  Climate. — Most  of  the  Plateau 
region  is  so  high  that  even  in  midsummer 
there  is  snow  on  the  higher  peaks  ;nui 
mountain  slopes  as  far  south  as  Colorado. 
Farther  north,  the  winters  are  extremely 
cold,  and  where  there  is  suflficient  mois- 
ture the  whole  country  is  snow-covered 
for  several  inoinlis  each  year.  In  the 
southern  part  it  is  much  warmer  even 
in  the  winter,  and  in  the  lowhinds  of 
Arizona  snow  is  unknown. 


The  rainfall  over  most 
of  the  region  is  light  (P  ig. 
145).  The  winds  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  (Fig.  139) 
are  the  ones  we  should 
expect  to  bring  rain,  but 
they  have  left  most  of 
their  moisture  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the 
mountains  farther  west. 
This  is  because  the  wind  from  the  ocean 
is  forced  to  great  heights  in  crossing 
the  mountains.  As  it  goes  higher  it 
becomes  colder  and  the  moisture  in  the 
air  condenses  and  falls  as  rain  or  snow. 
After  the  wind  has  crossed  such  a  high- 
land and  begins  to  descend  to  lower  levels 
it  becomes  warmer.  Such  winds  are 
usually  dry  and  bring  but  little  rain. 
This  is  the  reason  why  there  is  so  little 
rainfall  in  the  Great  Basin,  on  the  eastern 
mountain  slopes,  and  on  the  plains  east  of 
the  Cordilleras. 

On  the  higher  western  slopes  and  in  the 
high  valleys  there  is  usually  enough  rainfall 
during  the  year  for  the  growth  of  forests. 
Many  of  the  highest  peaks  are  so  cold  that 
trees  will  not  grow  on  them.  Some  of  the 
forest  regions  have  been  set  aside  by  our 
government  as  forest  reserves  (Fig.  238). 


THE   PLATEAU   STATES 


137 


Southwestern  Arizona  is 
part  of  a  true  desert  that 
reaches  into  southern  Cali- 
fornia. It  is  the  driest  and 
hottest  part  of  the  United 
States. 

148.  Agriculture.' — For  a 
time  it  was  supposed  that 
the  rainfall  in  the  Plateau 
region  was  too  li,uht  for 
agriculture.  But  men  have  now  learned 
how  to  raise  some  good  crops  in  regions 
of  light  rainfall.  This  industry  is  called 
dry  farmijig.  In  some  parts  of  the  Plateau 
States  there  is  enough  rain  for  many  crops. 

Smaller  areas  also  have  been  made  to 
produce  large  crops  by  means  of  irriga- 
tion. There  are  valleys  in  which  big 
dams  have  been  built  to  hold  back  the 
rivers  fed  by  the  rain  and  melting  snow. 
The  water  from  these  reservoirs  is  car- 
ried in  ditches  to  the  fields  and  used 
to  water  growing  crops.  Water  from 
wells  is  also  used  for  irrigation.  From 
some  wells  the  water  is  pumped  by 
windmills  or  engines  (Fig.  240)  and  in 
other  wells  it  rises  to  the  surface  without 
being  pumped.  There  are  many  such 
irrigated  districts,  but  taken  together  they 
form  only  a  small  part  of  the  whole  area. 


iJi  sirt  iMhiifuliifi/  of  Ihi  (.'UTh 

Fig,  239.     In  the  desert  region  of  New  Mexico 


\^  t?A  5  $tn^  X 


Fig.   240.     Pumping  water  for  irrigation.  New  Mexico 


In  both  the  dry  farming  and  the  irri- 
gated regions  more  and  more  farms  are 
being  developed.  Among  the  most  valu- 
able crops  are  wheat,  oats,  barley,  alfalfa, 
sugar  beets,  and  potatoes  and  other  vege- 
tables. Pruit  raising  is  also  a  very 
profitable  industry  in  the  irrigated  regions. 
Many  beet  sugar  factories  have  been  built 
in  Colorado  and  other  states,  and  sugar 
making  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  great 
manufacturing  iiiihistries  of  this  region. 

149.  Grazing.  There  are  large  areas 
of  grassland  in  the  Plateau  region  where 
grazing  is  more  j^rofitable  than  agricul- 
ture. The  grasslands  of  the  forest  re- 
serves (Fig.  238)  are  used  for  pasture  by 
permission  of  the  government.  Great 
flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  cattle  are 
raised. 

Montana  and  Wyoming  lead  all  other 
states  in  sheep  raising, 
and  the  industry  is  im- 
portant in  all  the  Pla- 
teau States.  Here,  as 
in  the  Dakotas,  grass 
left  uncut  cures  as  it 
stands  (Sec.  140"),  and 
furnishes  excellent  win- 
ter pasture  except  where 
the  snow  is  deep.  The 
wool  and  the  sheep  and 
lambs  find  a  ready  mar- 
ket farther  east. 


138 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


h^ 


^S^k; 


fe:A^^:•'^-vri^-•^^ 


Fig.  241.     Copper  mine  and  smelter,  Arizona 


Review  of  Sections  145  to  149. — i.  Name  the 
states  of  the  Plateau  group.  2.  What  mountains 
cross  this  region  .''  3.  Of  what  mountain  group  are 
they  a  part .''     4.  Where  are  the  high  plateaus  ? 

5.  How  does  drainage  from  these  states  reach 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  The  Pacific  Ocean  ? 
6.  Where  is  the  Great  Basin  ?  7.  What  becomes 
of  its  drainage.''  8.  Why  are  the  lakes  of  the 
Great  Basin  salt  ? 

9.  Where  in  this  region  does  the  snow  stay  on 
the  ground  even  in  mulsummer.''  10.  Where  is 
snow  unknown.''  11.  Where  are  the  forests.'' 
Why  ?     12.  Where  is  there  a  true  desert .'' 

13.  What  two  kinds  of  farming  are  carried  on  .'' 
14.  What  are  some  of  the  crops  raised  ?  i  5.  Name 
an  important  manufacture  of  Colorado.  16.  What 
kinds  of  animals  are  raised  in  the  grazing  regions 
of  the  Plateau  States  ? 

150.  Mining. — The  industry  for  which 
the  Plateau  States  are  best  known  is 
mining.  There  are  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
Cf)pper,  lead,  and  zinc,  as  well  as  coal  and 
iron.  Gold  and  silver  are  called  prrcious 
metals.  It  was  in  1848  that  gold  was 
first  loiind  in  Californi;i.  .At  that  time 
there  were  very  few  settlers  in  the  whole 
western  country.  .As  soon  as  it  was 
known    that   gc^ld    had    been    discovered, 


many  men  started 
for  the  gold  fields. 
Later,  men  search- 
ing for  gold  traveled 
through  the  moun- 
tains and  located 
valuable  mines  of 
all  the  metals. 

In  this  group  of 
states  Colorado  and 
Nevada  are  now 
the  chief  gold  pro- 
ducers. The'  lead- 
ing states  in  the 
mining  of  silver 
are  Montana  and 
Utah.  There  are 
large  silver  mines 
also  ill  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Colorado. 

Arizona,  Montana,  and  Utah  are  the 
chief  copper-producing  states.  The  pro- 
duction of  copper  is  also  very  large  in 
New  Mexico  and  Nevada.  The  copper- 
mining  center  of  Montana  is  Butte. 

Lead  is  found  in  Idaho,  Utah,  and 
Colorado.  Leadville  in  Colorado  is  famous 
more  for  its  silver  than  for  its  lead. 
Colorado  and  Montana  produce  zinc  ore. 
The  leading  Plateau  States  in  the  min- 
ing of  coal  are  Colorado  and  Wyoming, 
and  the  ([uantity  of  coal  produced  is  in- 
creasing as  the  industries  that  need  fuel 
continue  to  grow. 

riie  chief  manufacturing  industries  of 
the  Plateau  States  are  closely  connected 
with  mining.  There  are  stamp  mills 
where  tiie  ore  is  crushed,  and  smelters 
where  it  is  melted  to  remove  impurities. 
There  are  smelters  at  Denver  and  Pueblo 
in  Colorado,  near  Salt  Lake  City  in  Utah, 
at  Reno  in  Nevada,  and  at  many  other 
cities.  At  Pueblo  there  are  iron  and 
steel  works. 


illK    IM.ATKAU   STATES 


139 


151.  Transportation. 
— There  are  not  so  many 
railroads  in  this  group  of 
states  as  in  the  states 
farther  east  (Fig.  147). 
Several  lines  have  been 
built  across  the  Plateau 
region  to  connect  the 
eastern  and  western  parts 
of  the  country.  These 
transcontinental  (across 
the  continent)  lines  are 
great  trunk  railroads, 
and  have  many  branches 
built  to  reach  the  mines 
and  the  agricultural  dis- 


r 


i 


■  'i:icn'  .sttnrt/ 

Fig.   242.     A  gtysii  in  iiupnoii,  Yellow- 
stone National  Park 


the  ground  it  cools,  and 
some  of  the  material  is 
deposited  in  a  coating 
of  beautiful  and  brilliant 
colors. 

The  geysers  hurl  col- 
umns of  hot  water  and 
steam  high  into  the  air 
(Fig.  242).  Some  spout 
at  regular  intervals,  and 
some  spout  irregularly. 
With  some  the  spouting 
is  every  few  minutes,  but 
with  others  the  period  of^ 
rest  is  much  longer. 
f  In  the  Glacier  National 
Park  in  Montana  there 


tricts. 

152.    Scenery. — For  any  one  who  loves  are  many  glaciers  as  well  as  noble  moun- 

the  mountains  or  cares  for  the  works  of  tains  and  beautiful  lakes  (Fig.  243)^ 

nature  on  a  grand  scale,  this  part  of  our  Another  wonderful  natural  feature  of 


country    is    wonderfully    attractive      In 
northwestern   Wyoming  the  government 
has  set  aside  the  wonderland  known  as 
the  Yellowstone  National 
Park.     Here    the    Yel- 
lowstone River  has  cut 
a   deep,    narrow   gorge, 
or    canyon.     The    falls 
of  the  Yellowstone  are 
very  high,  and  the  walls 
of  the  gorge  show  beau- 
tiful colors. 

It  is,  however,  the  hot 
springs  and  the  geysers 
that  are  most  interest- 
ing. In  hundreds  of 
places  there  are  springs 
where  hot  water  bub- 
bles up  from  the  ground. 
The  hot  water  contams 
mineral  matter  that  it 
has  dissolved  out  of  the 
rocks.     As  it  flows  over    L 


the  West  is  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Col- 
orado, in  northwestern  Arizona.  Here,  in 
the  high   plateaus,  the   river  has  cut  a 


Fig.  243.     McDonald  Valley.  Glacier  National  Park,  Montana 


I40 

canyon  which  in  places 
is  more  than  a  mile  in 
depth.  Its  walls  are 
very  picturesque,  and  the 
rocks  are  most  wonder- 
fully colored. 

153.  Health  Resorts. 
— The  dry  air  in  certain 
regions  in  the  Plateau 
States  is  helpful  in  curing 
diseases  of  the  lungs. 
Many  invalids  have  re- 
covered their  health  in 
this  sunny  region  of  dry 
and  bracing  air.  Colorado 
Springs,  near  Denver, 
and  Phoenix,  Arizona,  are 
among  the  more  famous 
of  the  resorts. 

Review  of  Sections  150  to 
153. — I.  What  metals  areV' 
found  in  the  Plateau  States  ? 
2.  Which  are  the  precious 
metals .''  3.  How  were  tlie 
mines  in  the  mountains  lo- 
cated .?  4.  Which  states  pro- 
duce the  most  gold  ?  The 
most  silver }  5.  Where  are 
the  great  copper  mines .'' 
6.  Where  are  the  lead  mines  .'' 
The  zinc  mines .?  7.  Name 
another  mineral  found  in  this 
region. 

8.  What  manufacturing  in- 
dustries are  found  in  the  Pla- 
teau States  ?  9.  How  is  trade 
with  the  rest  of  the  world  car- 
ried on  ? 

10.  Why  is  this  an  interest- 
ing region  for  the  traveler  to 
visit  .^  II.  Where  is  the  Yel- 
lowstone      National        Paik  ^ 

12.  What     are    the    ge\sers .'' 

13.  W^here  is  the  Glacier  Na- 
tional Park  .'  14.  Where  is  the 
Grand  Canyon  of  the  Col- 
oradf> .''  Descrihe  it.  15.  Why 
are  some  parts  of  this  region 
good  health  resorts .' 


THE    PACIFIC   STATES 


141 


THE   PACIFIC  STATES 

154.  Position  and  Coast  Line. — There 
are  only  three  states  in  the  Paciiic  group  : 
California,  Oregon,  and  fVashington  (Fig. 
244).  California  is  larger  than  any  other 
state  in  the  Union  except  Texas. 

Although  all  three  states  border  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  with  a  coast  line  that 
reaches  from  Canada  to  Mexico,  there 
are  few  good  natural  harbors.  Among 
them  are  several  in  Puget  Sound  and  one 
at  San  Francisco  Bay,  where  the  moun- 
tain range  along  the  coast  is  broken. 
The  Columbia  River  has  cut  a  valley 
across  the  mountains,  and  large  ships  can 
steam  a  long  distance  up  the  river. 
In  what  state  is  Puget  Sound  ? 
San  Francisco  Baj^ }  Where  is 
the  Columbia  River  ? 

155.  Surface  and  Drainage. — 
In  the  eastern  part  of  California 
is  the  mountain  range  called  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  This  range  rises 
many  thousand  feet  from  the 
great  valley  at  its  western  base, 
and  is  very  steep  on  the  east, 
where  it  faces  the  Great  Basin. 
Toward  the  north,  in  its  higher 
valleys,  there  are  a  few  small 
glaciers,  and  snow  fields  that  last 
throughout  the  year.  Mt.  Shasta, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  moun- 
tain peaks  of  the  West,  is  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state. 

The  Cascade  Range,  which 
crosses  Oregon  and  Washington, 
is  really  a  continuation  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  under  another 
name.  It  is  not  so  high  as  the 
Sierra  Nevada  but  is  much 
broader.  The  Cascade  Range 
was  given  its  name  because  of  the 


cascades  or  waterfalls  in  the  rivers  that 
tumble  down  its  sides.  Mt.  Hood  in 
Oregon  and  Mt.  Rainier  in  Washington 
are  among  the  highest  of  the  great  peaks. 
West  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
ranges  are  broad  valleys,  shut  off  from 
the  Pacific  by  the  low  Coast  Ranges 
which  border  that  ocean.  The  Great 
California  Valley  is  one  of  these.  It  is 
closed  at  the  north  by  Mt.  Shasta  and 
other  mountains,  and  is  drained  by  the 
Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  rivers. 
One  of  the  branches  of  the  San  Joaquin  is 
the  Merced  River,  which  flows  through  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  a  region  of  majestic  and 
beautiful  scenery  (Fig.  245). 


142 


THE  UNITED   STATES 


hr-iitt 


The  Willamette  Valley  in  Oregon  is 
similar  to  the  Great  California  Valley. 
It  is  named  from  the  river  that  drains  it 
toward  the  north  into  the  Columbia 
River.  In  Washington  the  corresponding 
valley  opens  on  Puget  Sound. 

There  are  a  number  of  short  rivers  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  One 
large  stream,  the  Columbia,  with  its  chief 
tributary,  the  Snake,  crosses  the  whole 
width  of  the  Pacific  region.  It  drains  the 
high  plateaus  east  of  the  Cascade  Range. 

156.  Climate.  —  In  a  region  that 
stretches  for  so  great  a  distance  north 
and  south,  and  that  has  such  high  moun- 
tains, there  are  naturally  great  differences 
in  temperature.  In  the  desert  region  of 
southeastern  California,  it  is  hot  even 
during  the  winter.  in  wt-stcm  Wash- 
ington the  tempcrarurc-  is  mild  at  all 
seasons.  The  lowlands  along  the  coast 
are  kept  cool  in  summer  and  are  some- 
what   warmed    in    winter    by   the   winds 


from  the  ocean.  The 
great  vallej^s  are 
warmer  in  summer 
and  cooler  in  winter 
than  the  coast  re- 
gions, and  they  are 
always  much  warm- 
er than  the  higher 
mountain  slopes. 

In  the  rainfall  also 
there  are  great  dif- 
ferences. Much  of 
southern  California 
has  very  little  rain. 
The  coast  of  Wash- 
ington is  the  rainiest 
region  of  the  United 
States.  Most  of  the 
rain  in  the  Pacific 
States  falls  in  the 
winter.  The  heaviest  rainfall  is  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  mountains  because 
the  winds  that  bring  the  rains  come  from 
the  Pacific  (Fig.  139).  In  the  lowlands 
there  is  never  much  snow,  even  as  far 
north  as  Washington,  but  in  the  high 
mountains  the  moisture  often  falls  as  snow, 
even  in  the  summer.  On  some  mountains, 
where  it  is  so  cold  that  the  snow  remains 
on  the  ground  throughout  the  year,  small 
glaciers  are  formed  (Fig.  246). 

Review  of  Sections  154  to  156. — i.  Name  the 
.states  in  the  Pacific  group.  2.  Which  of  them 
is  next  to  Texas  in  size .? 

3.  Where  is  the  Sierra  Nevada  .^  fhe  Cas- 
cade Range .'  4.  What  three  great  valleys  are 
west  of  these  ranges  ?  5.  By  what  rivers  is  the 
Great  California  Valley  drained  1  6.  Where  is  the 
Yosemite  Valley  ?  7.  What  mountains  horder  the 
Pacific  coast  ? 

S.  Where  is  the  desert  in  California  ?  9.  How 
is  the  temperature  of  the  coast  lowlands  in- 
fluenced by  the  ocean  .''  10.  Where  i.s  there  httle 
rainfall?  11.  Where  is  the  rainfall  heavy!* 
12.  Wiiere  are  there  glaciers.? 


THE   PACIFIC  STATES 


143 


157.  Agriculture. — The  rainfall 
in  most  (-)t  \\  ashintiton,  western 
Oregon,  and  northern  Cahtornia 
is  sufficient  for  agriculture  without 
irrigation.  In  the  Puget  Sound 
and  Willamette  valleys,  and  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  California 
Valley,  fruit,  vegetables,  and  grain 
are  raised,  and  there  are  many 
dairy  farms.  In  the  southern 
part  of  California  there  is  so  little 
rain  on  the  lowlands  that  crops 
cannot  be  raised  without  irriga- 
tion. Some  crops  also  in  eastern 
Oregon  and  Washington  are  irri- 
gated. The  water  for  irrigation  is 
furnished  by  the  streams  resulting  from 
the  heavy  rainfall  on  the  mountains. 

California  grows  great  quantities  of 
fruit,  sugar  beets,  rice,  and  barley. 
Among  the  fruits  are  grapes,  oranges 
(Fig.  247),  lemons,  figs,  apples,  peaches, 
plums,  and  pears.  Many  of  the  grapes 
are  made  into  raisins.  Wheat  is  raised 
most  extensively  in  eastern  Washington 
and  eastern  Oregon,  by  dry  farming. 
Many  sheep  and  cattle  are  raised  on  the 
grasslands  of  Oregon  and  California. 


158.    The    Forests    and    Lumbering. — 

The  heavy  rainfall  in  the  mountains  and 
at  the  north  has  led  to  a  wonderful  growth 
of  forest  trees.  Those  on  the  western 
mountain  slopes  (Sec.  156)  are  the  finest 
in  the  United  States.  Lumbering  is  a 
great  industry  in  the  Pacific  States. 
Washington  now  produces  more  lumber 
than  any  other  state  in  the  country  (Eig- 
248).  Seattle  and  Tacoma,  on  Puget 
Sound,  and  Portland,  on  the  Columbia 
River,  all  ship  large  quantities  of  lumber. 


144 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


159.  Mining. — Much  gold  is  mined  in 
California,  and  some  silver  and  copper. 
It  was  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California, 
in  the  year  1848,  that  caused  the  first 
great  movement  of  people  to  the  Pacific 
coast.  This  state  still  produces  more  of 
that  precious  metal  than  any  other 
state  in  the  Union.  The  value  of  the 
gold  mined  each  year,  however,  is  small 
as  compared  with  the  value  of  the  other 
products  of  the  state. 

Petroleum  is  another  product  in  which 
California  takes  very  high  rank  (Fig.  249). 
Much  of  it  is  used  as  fuel  just  as  it  conies 
from  the  ground.  In  this  part  of  the 
country  many  factories,  railroad  loco- 
motives, and  steamships  use  oil  instead 
of  coal. 

There  are  several  large  smelting  works 
on  the  Pacific  coast  for  the  treatment  of 
ores  mined  in  these  states  and  in  Alaska. 

The  chief  coal  beds  of  the  Pacific  States 
are  in  Washington.    // 

160.  Fishing. — Along  this  part  of  the 
Pacific  coast  there  are  valuable  salmon 
and  halibut  fisheries.  The  salmon  live 
in  the  ocean,  but  "  spawn,"  or  deposit 
their  eggs,  in  the  fresh,  cold  waters  of 
mountain  streams.  Every  year  immense 
numbers  of  salmon  leave  the  ocean  and 
swim  up  the  rivers  of  Washington  and 
Oregon  to  spawn.  On  their  way  tlicy 
are  caught  in  fish  wheels,  traps,  and  nets. 


They  are  then  canned 

(Fig.  250),  or  are  put 
into  refrigerator  cars 
and  shipped  to  market 
fresh.  Halibut  are 
caught  in  large  num- 
bers along  the  coast 
as  far  south  as  San 
Francisco. 
161.  Manufacturing. 
— There  are  now  many  great  manufactur- 
ing industries  on  the  Pacific  coast.  They 
include  the  sawing  of  lumber,  the  making 
of  flour,  the  smelting  of  ores,  and  the 
canning  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  fish. 
Shipbuilding  is  another  industry  that  is 
growing,  because  of  our  increasing  trade 
with  Alaska,  Asia,  Australia,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific. 

162.  Commerce  and  the  Cities. — These 
states  face  the  Pacific  Ocean.  On  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  ocean  live  some  of 
the  oldest  nations  of  the  world.  In 
recent  years  those  ancient  peoples  have 
been  changing  their  habits  of  life  and 
adopting  modern  customs.  Trade  with 
Japan  and  China  and  other  countries  of 
the  "  Orient,"  as  this  part  of  the  Old 
World  is  called,  is  constantly  increasing. 


Fig.  250.     Cleaning  room  of  a  salmon  cannery,  Oregon 


THE   PACIFIC  STATES 


145 


To  the  Orient  we  send 
oil,  r;n\  cotton,  and  goods 
made  in  the  factories  ot 
our  country.  From  the 
Orient  we  receive  raw 
silk,  tea,  chinaware,  and 
fine  carvings,  which  are 
sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Much  of 
this  trade  passes  through 
the  ports  in  the  Puget 
Sound  region  or  through 
Portlayid,  San  Francisco, 
Los  Angeles,  and  San 
Diego.  These  ports  are 
all  located  on  fine  har- 
bors and  are  connected 
with  the  East  by  great  railways.  Steam- 
ship routes  to  Atlantic  ports  have  been 
greatly  shortened  by  the  Panama  Canal. 

Seattle  and  Tacoma  are  the  chief  cities 
in  the  Puget  Sound  region.  Seattle  carries 
on  a  large  trade  with  Alaska  and  the 
Orient,  and  manufactures  lumber  arid 
furniture.  Tacoma  has,  besides  its  trade, 
large  lumber  and  flour  mills.  Spokane 
has  great  water  power  (Fig.  251)  and  has 
become  the  trade  center  of  a  large  inland 
region  called  "  the  Inland  Empire." 

Portland,  although  more  than  a  hundred 
miles  from  the  coast,  is  reached  by  ocean 
steamers  and  has  a  thriving  foreign  trade. 

San  Francisco  is  the  chief  seaport  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  America.  Its  beauti- 
ful harbor  (Fig.  252)  is  reached  from  the 
ocean  through  a  break  in  the  Coast 
Range.  The  city  was  partly  destroyed 
by  a  great  fire  in  1906,  but  was  quickly 
rebuilt  and  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  of 
our  country.  Here  are  large  sugar  refin- 
eries and  other  factories  :  the  city  is  im- 
portant for  its  manufactures  as  well  as 
for  its  great  commerce. 


Fig.  251.     Mills  at  Spokane 


Los  Angeles  is  the 
largest  city  in  California, 
and  has  an  excellent 
harbor.  It  is  in  the  heart 
of  a  wonderful  fruit- 
growing district,  and  ships 
large  quantities  of  fruit. 
Some  of  this  is  ship[)ed 
fresh,  as  the  use  of  special 
cars  makes  it  possible  to 
send  it  to  eastern  markets 
without  spoiling.  Some 
of  the  fruit  is  canned  and 
much  is  dried.  Sacra- 
mento, the  capital  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  an  important 
manufacturing  city. 

Review  of  Sections  157  to  162. — i.  Where  is 

there  sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture  without 
irrigation  ?  2.  What  fruits  are  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia.?  3.  What  states  raise  much  wheat? 
4.  What  grazing  industry  is  carried  on  ?     Where .? 

5.  Where  are  the  forest  regions  ?  6.  Which  of 
these  states  leads  the  country  in  the  production 
of  lumber  ?  7.  Name  three  cities  that  are  im- 
portant lumber-shipping  ports. 

8.  How  did  the  mining  of  gold  help  the  settle- 
ment of  the  West .''     9.  Where  is  petroleum  found  ? 

10.  Where  are  the  coal  fields  of  the  Pacific  region  ? 

11.  What  fuel  is  much  used  in  the  Pacific  States? 

12.  What  important  fishing  industry  is  carried 
on  ?     Where  ? 

13.  Name  some  of  the  manufacturing  industries 
of  the  Pacific  States.  14.  Tell  about  the  trade 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Orient 
15.  Name  the  great  ports  of  the  Pacific  coast. 


Piers  in  San  Francisco 


OUTLYING   POSSESSIONS   OK    IHE   UNITED   STATES 


M7 


Fig.  254.     The  summit  of  Mount  McKinley,  the  highest  peak  of  Nortli  America 


OUTLYING   POSSESSIONS  OF  THE 
UNITED   STATES 

163.  Position. — Two  outlying  regions 
in  the  continent  of  North  America  are 
under  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  Alaslca  in  the  northwest  forms  a 
part  of  our  country,  and  the  Panama 
Canal  Zone  in  the  south  is  under  our 
control. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  United  States 
includes  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  owns 
the  Philippines  and  a  number  of  small 
islands.  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  our  coun- 
try owns  the  island  of  Porto  Rico. 

164.  Alaska. — The  territory  of  Alaska 
is  nearly  nine  times  as  large  as  New  Eng- 
land. Its  northern  shores  are  washed  by 
the  cold  waters  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  On 
the  west  it  is  separated  from  Asia  by  Be- 
ring Strait,  which  connects  the  Arctic 
Ocean  with  the  Bering  Sea.  From  the 
southern  shore  a  long  peninsula  extends 
southwest  into  the  Pacific,  and  from  its 


western  end  the  Aleutian  Islands  reach 
almost  to  the  coast  of  Asia  (Fig.  253). 

The  mountains  on  the  southern  coast 
are  high  and  rugged ;  and  about  100 
miles  back  from  the  shore  is  the  mountain 
range  that  includes  Mt.  McKinley,  the 
highest  peak  on  the  continent  (Fig.  254). 
The  region  through  which  the  Yukon 
River  flows  is  rough,  but  farther  north 
along  the  Arctic  Ocean  there  is  a  low  plain. 

During  the  summer  southern  Alaska 
is  warm,  but  in  the  winter  most  of  Alaska 
is  intensely  cold,  especially  in  the  interior. 
In  the  summer  the  warm  winds  from  the 
Pacific  bring  much  moisture.  Along  the 
coast  this  falls  as  rain,  but  in  the  moun- 
tains nearly  always  as  snow.  In  the 
high  valleys  the  snow  has  packed  into 
drifts  year  after  year  and  slowly  changed 
to  ice,  forming  great  glaciers  which  move 
very  slowly  down  toward  the  sea.  Some 
of  the  glaciers  reach  the  sea  on  the  shores 
of  the  long,  narrow  bays,  ov  fiords.  There 
the  ice  breaks  off  in  large  icebergs. 


148 


THE  UNITED   STATES 


The  summer  season  is  warm  enough  and 
long  enough  to  enable  grass  and  a  few 
crops  to  grow.  Large  herds  of  reindeer 
are  kept  in  the  territory.  Forests  are 
found  along  the  Yukon  and  in  the  south- 
ern valleys.  The  great  industries  of 
Alaska,  however,  are  fishing  and  mining. 


atlan'^ic  ocean 

CARIBBEAN    „tSE, 

7-oro     .v-'' 


1«  MlUa  10  ONI.  IHCH 
ll>nn>M)B  ihown  Hhib:  ^^^ 
CLCVATIONft  IN  FCCT 
I        1  OVEH  1000 

I J   BOO  TO  1000 

Cn   AtA  LtVCl  TO  MO 


The  fishing  industry  alone  has  yielded 
many  times  the  amount  of  money  which 
our  government  paid  for  Alaska. 

Fur  seals  have  been  caught  for  many 
years  along  the  coast  and  on  the  Pribilof 
Islands  in  the  Bering  Sea.  The  fur  of 
these  animals  is  very  fine  and  soft  after 
the  long  hairs  have  been  pulled  out.  Seal- 
skins are  now  very  costly  ;  for,  in  spite  of 
the  laws  to  protect  the  seals,  their  num- 
ber is  decreasing. 

Great  numbers  of  salmon  are  caught  in 
the  streams  of  Alaska,  so  that  the  salmon 
is  even  more  important  than  the  fur  seal. 
The  value  of  the  fish  taken  amounts  to 
several  million  dollars  every  year. 

It  was  known  for  a  long  time  that  there 
was  gold  in  the  Klondike  district  of 
northwestern  Canada,  and  in  several 
l)laces  in  Alaska,  but  it  was  not  until 
about  1900  that  mining  became  a  great 
industry  there.  Now  many  million  dol- 
lars' worth  of  gold  are  mined  in  Alaska 
each  year.  The  chief  mines  are  at  Nome, 
at  Fairbanks,  and  near  Juneau. 


OUTLYING  POSSESSIONS  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 


149 


Travel  in  Alaska  is  difficult 
at  all  times,  and  very  dna- 
gerous  in  the  winter.  A  few 
good  roads  and  some  short 
railroad  lines  have  been 
built,  but  not  very  many  for 
so  large  a  territory.  The 
Yukon  River  is  a  great 
waterway  for  boats  during 
the  summer. 

165.  The  Panama  Canal 
Zone.  —  Many  years  ago 
a  French  company  was 
formed  to  dig  a  ship  canal 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Only  a  166.  Porto  Rico.  —  Southeast  of  Florida 
small  part  of  the  work  was  done,  however,  and  north  and  east  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
before  the  company  failed.  In  1903  our  is  a  group  of  islands  known  as  the  West 
government  secured  from  the  republic  of    Indies.      One  of  these,   Porto   Rico,  was 


HHM'  ' 
Fig.  258 


Jl  Newman  TrtiwUallui 
Tobacco  fields  and  drying  slieels  in  Porto  Rico.     Some  of  the 
fields  are  shaded  with  cotton  cloth 


Panama  a  strip  of  land  ten  miles  in  width 
across  the  isthmus  (Fig.  256).  Many 
men  were  employed  and  the  work  was 
done  so  rapidly  that  the  great  canal  was 
completed  in  1914.  The  use  of  the  canal 
(Fig.  257)  greatly  shortens  the  ocean 
journey  for  ships  sailing  between  our  At- 
lantic ports  and  our  own  Pacific  ports, 
as  well    as   the   ports  of  the  west   coast 


ceded  to  our  country  by  Spain,  at  the 
close  of  the  Spanish-American  war  in 
1898.  It  is  about  twice  as  large  as  Long 
Island.  A  low  mountain  range  extends 
through  it  from  east  to  west  (Fig.  255). 
As  most  of  the  winds  come  from  the  north- 
east, the  heaviest  rainfall  is  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  mountains. 

The    products   of    Porto   Rico    include 


of  South  America  and  the  east  coast  of  oranges,  pineapples,  bananas,  and  other 
Asia.  It  is  used  by  many  ships  of  all  tropical  fruits ;  coffee ;  tobacco  (Fig. 
nations.  25S)  ;  and  sugar  cane,  from  which  great 

quantities  of  sugar  are  made.  Vegetables 
also  are  grown  for  the  winter  markets  of 
our  northern  cities. 

The  chief  cities  and  seaports  are  San 
Juan  and  Ponce,  and  the  trade  is  largely 
with  the  United  States. 

About  three  fifths  of  the  people  of  Porto 
Rico  are  white,  and  two  fifths  are  ne- 
groes. 

Not  far  east  of  Porto  Rico  are  St. 
Thomas,  St.  John,  and  St.  Croix,  small 
islands  bought  by  our  country  from  Den- 
mark in  1916. 


Fig.  257.     A  ship  in  the  Panama  Canal 


OUTLMNC;    POSSESSIONS  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


151 


Review  of  Sections  163  to  166.  i.  N:imf  tlu- 
most  imp()rt.iiu  outls  iiig  possessions  ot  the  Unitiil 
States.  2.  Which  of  these  form  part  of  our 
continent  ?  3.  Which  of  the  islands  arc  in  the 
Pacific  ?     In  the  Atlantic  ? 

4.  How  does  Alaska  compare  in  size  with  New 
England?  5.  What  waters  border  it  ?  6.  Where 
are  the  Aleutian  Islands?  7.  Where  is  Mt. 
McKinlcy  ?  S.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  country 
along  the  southern  coast  ?  Along  the  \  ukon 
River  ?  On  the  northern  coast  ?  9.  Where  are 
the  Alaskan  glaciers  ?  Why  are  they  formed 
there  ? 

10.  What  animals  are  kept  in  Alaska?  Ii. 
Where  are  the  Alaskan  forests?  12.  What  are 
the  important  industries  of  Alaska  ?  13.  Where 
is  the  fur  seal  caught?  14.  Why  is  it  valuable? 
15.  Where  are  salmon  caught?  16.  Where  arc 
the  gold  mines  ? 

17.  Why  is  the  Panama  Canal  of  much  impor- 
tance ? 

18.  Where  is  Porto  Rico?  19.  How  did  the 
United  States  gain  possession  of  it  ?  20.  How 
large  is  it?  21.  Where  is  its  heavy  rainfall? 
Why?  22.  What  are  the  leading  products? 
23.    Where  are  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Croix? 

167.  The  Hawaiian  Islands. — The 
Hawaiian  Islands  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  United  States  in  1898.  They  lie 
about  2000  miles  southwest  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. Hawaii,  with  an  area  a  little  greater 
than  that  of  Porto  Rico,  is  by  far  the 
largest  island  of  the  group. 

rhere  are  t%\o  active  volcanoes  on  the 
island  of  Hawaii.  Here  melted  rock,  or 
lava,  rises  through  openings  in  the  earth's 
crust,  and  flows  out  over  the  surface  of 
the  land.  Indeed,  it  is  believed  that  all 
these  islands  were  formed  in  this  way  and 
were  built  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean.  Where  the  melted  rock  has  cooled 
around  an  opening  in  the  crust  it  has 
built  a  cone-shaped  mountain  with  a  kind 
of  chimney  hole  in  the  center. 

In  volcanoes  like  those  in  Hawaii,  the 
melted  rock  rises  into  the  basin-like 
crater  (Fig.  260),  at  the  top  of  the  chim- 
ney, until  it  overflows  the  rim  or  breaks 


V .  -S".  (Jt:fjioijU<tl  S/jrr:  y 

Fig.  260.     Crater  of  an  active  volcano  in  Hawaii 


through  the  side  of  the  mountain.  There 
are  many  volcanoes  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  In  most  of  them  the  lava  contains 
water  which  quickly  changes  to  steam  as 
the  lava  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  expansion  of  the  steam  blows  the 
melted  rock  into  fine  pieces  high  in  the 
air.  When  they  fall  to  the  earth  again, 
they  look  like  ashes.  Many  of  the  parti- 
cles are  carried  long  distances  by  the 
winds  and  fall  in  distant  lands  or  seas. 
The  decks  of  ships  at  sea  may  be  covered 
with  them.  The  heavier  particles  fall 
around  the  opening  and  help  to  build  the 
volcanic  cone  higher.  The  highest  vol- 
canic cones  or  peaks  are  thousands  of  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  in  about  the 
same    latitude,  —  that    is,    at    the    same 


152 


OUTLYING   POSSESSIONS  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


i^^^iiflif^ 


Fig.   261.     Bleak  leeward  side  of  the  island  of  Oahu,  one  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 


.  i^fOlogtcai  Surrey 


distance  north  of  the  Equator,  —  as 
Porto  Rico ;  and  their  chmate  and  prod- 
ucts are  similar.  The  temperature  is 
warm  and  without  great  changes  during 
the  year.  The  chief  winds  are  from  the 
northeast,  and  the  heavy  rains  are  on  that 
side  of  the  mountains.  As  in  Porto  Rico, 
sugar  cane  is  the  chief  crop.  Most  of 
the  raw  sugar  is  sent  to  San  Francisco  to 
be  refined.  Other  crops  include  pine- 
apples (Fig.  262),  rice,  and  tobacco. 


The  chief  city  is  Honolulu.  Many 
ships  stop  there  on  their  way  between  the 
ports  of  Asia  and  those  of  North  America. 
Most  of  the  commerce  is  with  the  United 
States. 

People  from  China  and  Japan,  as  well  as 
from  America,  have  settled  in  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands. 

168.  The  Philippine  Islands. — The 
Philippine  Islands,  like  Porto  Rico,  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  United  States 
as  a  result  of  the  war  with  Spain.  They 
are  a  long  distance  west  of  Hawaii,  and 
a  little  farther  south.  They  lie  near  the 
coast  of  southeastern  Asia.  The  area 
of  the  whole  group,  which  includes  several 
hundred  islands,  is  nearly  twice  that  of 
New  England.  Two  of  the  islands,  Luzon 
in  the  north  and  Mindanao  in  the  south, 
contain  more  than  half  of  the  total  area. 
The  land  is  hilly  and  in  many  sections 
mountainous.  The  temperature  is  warm, 
and  the  rainfall  heavy,  most  of  the  rain 
coming  in  the  summer. 

The  soil  is  rich  and  deep,  and  there  are 
dense  forests  of  valuable  woods.  Rice 
(Fig.  263),  sugar,  coconuts,  and  tobacco 
arc  raised.   Another  valuable  crop  is  hemp, 


OUTLYING   POSSESSIONS  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 


153 


the  fiber  of  which  is  used  for  making  the 
excellent  Manila  rope.  Rice  is  the  most 
important  food  of  the  native  people,  and  in 
addition  to  that  raised,  much  is  imported. 
Most  of  the  sugar  is  exported  to  the  United 
States  to  be  refined.  Coconuts  are  used 
for  food,  or  the  meat  is  dried,  making 
copra.  Copra  and  coconut  oil,  extracted 
from  copra,  are  exported  to  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  nut  butter  and  of  soap. 
It  is  known  that  the  islands  contain  many 
valuable  mineral  deposits,  and  consider- 
able gold  is  mined. 

The  principal  city,  Manila,  is  on  the 
island  of  Luzon. 


'' I  ''■!■'""' 


IK 


p^^l^j 


Fig.  264.     Native  house,  Guam 


l\tlippinf  CommLsslon 
Fig.  263.     Irrigated  rice  terraces,  Luzon.  Philippine  Islands 


169.  Other  Islands. — There  are  several 
other  Pacific  Islands  that  belong  to  the 
United  States  (Fig.  259).  Guam  (Fig.  264) 
and  Tutuila  are  the  largest.  They  are 
chiefly  important  as  coaling  stations  for 
warships  and  other  govern- 
ment vessels  that  cross  the 
Pacific.  Guam  was  taken 
from  Spain  in  1898.  Tu- 
tuila, with  a  few  neighbor- 
ing islands,  was  acquired 
in  1900.  It  possesses  the 
harbor  of  Pago  Pago,  the 
finest  in  the  Samoan  group. 

Review  of  Sections  167  to 
169. — I.  Wtiere  are  tfie  Ha- 
waiian Islands.^  2.  Which  one 
is  the  targest  ?  3.  How  were 
the  islands  formed  ?  4.  What  is 
lava  ?  5.  What  are  the  leading 
products  of  the  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands ?  6.  What  is  the  chief 
city?     7.    Why  is  it  important? 

8.  Where  are  the  Philippine 
Islands  ?  9.  Name  the  two 
largest.  10.  When  did  the 
United  States  get  possession  of 
them?  II.  What  are  the  chief 
products  of  the  Philippines  r 
12.  What  has  our  country  done 
for  the  education  of  the  people 
there  and  in  Porto  Rico  ? 

13.  Name  two  other  islands 
in  the  Pacific  that  are  owned  by 
the  United  States.  14.  For 
what  are  they  chiefly  impor- 
tant? 


Fig.  266.     Lumber  mill,  British  Columbia 


THE    NORTHERN    COUNTRIES    OF 
NORTH    AMERICA 


THE   DOMINION  OF  CANADA 

170.  Position,  Surface,  and  Political 
Divisions. — Canada,  as  Figure  265  shows, 
occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  continent 
of  North  America  north  of  the  United 
States.  What  ocean  is  north  of  Canada  ? 
What  ocean  is  east  ?  West  ?  What 
lakes  and  river  form  a  part  of  its  southern 
boundary  ? 

As  in  the  United  States,  there  is  a  great 
central  plain  between  high  mountains  on 
the  west  and  low  mountains  on  the  east. 
The  northern  coast  line  is  deeplj'  indented 
by  Hudson  Bay  and  by  its  southward 
e.xtension,  James  Bay.  Most  of  the 
drainage  is  either  into  these  bays  or  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Canada  is  divided  into  provinces  and 
territories   (Fig.    265)    as  our  country   is 


divided  into  states.  Its  government  is 
much  like  that  of  the  United  States,  but 
the  highest  officer  is  appointed  by  the 
government  of  Great  Britain. 

171.  Agriculture,  Dairying,  and  Forests. 
— North  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  the  prov- 
ince of  Ontario,  the  part  of  Canada  that 
reaches  farther  south  than  any  other 
part.  Southern  Ontario  is  one  of  the 
best  of  the  Canadian  farming  and  dairy- 
ing regions.  Wheat  and  other  grains 
are  raised,  and  the  province  is  famous  for 
its  fruits,  including  apples,  grapes,  and 
peaches.  The  dairy  farms  produce  large 
amounts  of  butter  and  cheese  for  local  use 
and  for  shipment  to  England. 

Farther  east,  there  are  many  farms  in 
southern  Quebec,  and  in  the  provinces  of 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Prince 
Edward  Island. 


'SS 


156 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.   2o7.     Cutting  grain  in  Saskatchewan 


pecially  on  the  Pa- 
cific slope,  there  are 
magnificent  forests 
of  fir,  spruce,  and 
cedar.  Along  the 
northern  edge  of  the 
forest  the  trees  are 
small,  and  when  cut 
at  all,  are  used  for 
wood  pulp. 

There    are     enor- 

Farther  west  are  the  fine  wheat  lands  of     mous  lumber  mills  at  Ottazva,  the  capital 
Manitoba,  Saskatchewan  (Fig.  267),  and     of  Canada.     St.  John,  Montreal,    Toronto, 
Alberta,  which  are  like  those  of  the  ad-     and  J'ancouver  are  other  points  for  manu- 
joining  parts   of  the  United   States.     In     facturing  and  shipping  lumber, 
recent  years  the  wheat-raising  region  has 
been  rapidly  extended.      Enormous  crops 
are    now    raised,  and    Winnipeg,    in    the 
southeastern     part    of    this    region,    has 
grown  to  be  a  large  city. 

Cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  on  the  drier 
plains  of  Alberta  (Fig.  269),  west  of  the 
wheat  belt,  and  in  the  mountain  pastures. 
General  farming  is  beginning  to  develop 
in  the  mountain  valleys  and  ak)ng  the 
coast  of  British  Columbia,  as  it  has  already 
developed  in  the  eastern  provinces. 

There  are  extensive  forests  in  New 
Brunswick.  Quebec,  and  Ontario,  stretch- 
ing from  the  United  States  as  far  north  as 
Labrador  and  the  southern  part  of  Hudson  in  southern  British  Columbia,  including 
Bay.  The  forests  extend  west  as  far  as  Vancouver  Island.  Gold  is  found  chiefly 
the  treeless  plains  around  Winnii)eg.  in  the  pro\incc  of  Ontario  and  in  the 
From  there  the  forest  reaches  north  and  Klondike  district,  east  of  Alaska.  Some 
west  in  a  narrow  belt  until  it  unites  with  gold  has  been  mined  in  the  mountains  of 
the  great  forests  of  the  western  moun-  British  Columbia.  Silver,  copper,  and 
tains.  North  of  the  forest  belt  are  treeless  lead  deposits  also  have  been  found  in 
plains,  cold  in  winter  but  in  summer  cov-  these  mountains.  The  chief  silver  and 
ered  "vvith  grass  and  flowers.  nickel  mines  are  in  Ontario,  near  the  upper 

The  trees  of  the  eastern  provinces  are  Ottawa  River.  Large  deposits  have  been 
hardwoods,  pines,  and  spruces.  In  the  found  and  many  of  the  mines  are  very 
province  of  Ontario  there  are  large  pine  valuable.  The  iron  mines  of  Canada  nrc 
forests.      In    the  western   mountains,   cs-     not  yet  extensively  worked. 


Fig.  268.     Grain  elevators  at  a  railroad  station, 
Saskatchewan 


172.    Mining.  — ^khe    chief    coal-mining 
regions  of  Canada  are  in  Nova  Scotia  and 


CANADA,   NEWFOUNDLAND 


157 


173.    Hunting  and  Fishing. 
When    the    early    settlers    first 
made   their   way   into   the    Ca- 
nadian wilderness,  they  found  a 
great  many  fur-bearing  animals. 
Fhese    animals    were    killed    in 
large   numbers   and    their   skins 
taken   to  some   settlement   and 
traded    for   powder,  shot,   blan- 
kets, and  other  articles.     Under 
English    rule,  a  great  company 
called  the   Hudson's    Bay  Company   was 
formed  to  carry  on  the  business  of  collect- 
ing furs.     It  is  still   in  the  business  and 
employs  many  men. 


Fig.   270.     In  the  business  section  of  Toronto 


Fishing  is  an  important  industry  along 
the  eastern  coast  of  Canada,  especially 
in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  on  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland.  Large  fishing 
fleets  go  out  from  Halifax  and  Yarmouth 
in  Nova  Scotia.  Salmon  fishing  is  a  large 
industry  in  the  rivers  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

174.  Trade  Routes  and  Cities. — Can- 
ada trades  chiefly  with  European  countries 
and  with  the  United  States.  Trade  with 
Japan  and  China  is  growing  rapidly  and  is 
carried  on  through  Vancouver,  the  chief 
Canadian  port  on  the  Pacific.  The  lead- 
ing eastern  seaports  are  Halifax,  on  the 
Atlantic,  and  Quebec  and  Montreal,  on  the 


St.  Lawrence  River.  The  cities  on  the 
St.  Lawrence,  however,  are  only  summer 
ports,  as  the  river  freezes  during  the 
winter  time.  Montreal  and  Toronto  (Fig. 
270)  are  the  largest  of  the  Canadian  cities, 
and  have  many  factories.^ 

Trade  with  the  United  States  is  carried 
on  by  rail,  and  also  by  boat  along  the 
coast  and  across  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Great  Lakes.  The  river  and  the  lakes 
furnish  a  route  into  the  interior  as  impor- 
tant for  southern  Canada  as  it  is  for 
northern  United  States  (Sec.  90).  There 
are  also  railroads  across  the  continent  and 
many  branch  roads  extending  into  all  the 
more  densely  settled  parts  of  the  country. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  AND  GREENLAND 

175.  Newfoundland.— The  island  of 
Newfoundland,  with  a  part  of  the  Labra- 
dor coast  which  is  under  the  same  govern- 
ment, is  a  colony  of  Great  Britain,  but 
not  a  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
It  has  a  small  population,  whose  chief 
occupation  is  fishing.  In  parts  of  the 
island  there  is  a  heavy  growth  of  timber, 
and  some  paper  and  pulp  mills  have 
recently  been  built. 

St.  Johns,  the  capital,  is  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  island.  It  is  the  only 
large  town  in  Newfoundland. 


GREENLAND,   MEXICO 


'59 


176.  Greenland. — Greenland  belongs 
to  Denmark,  one  of  the  smaller  countries 
of  Europe.  It  is  the  largest  island  in  the 
world.  It  is  about  one  fourth  the  size  of 
the  United  States.  Its  surface  is  almost 
entirely  covered  with  a  great  sheet  of  ice. 
As  in  Alaska,  the  ice  reaches  the  sea  in 
many  places.  Huge  icebergs  are  broken 
off  and  are  a  constant  source  of  danger 
to  ships  in  all  waters  into  which  they  float. 
Along  the  southwestern  coast  there  are  a 
few  inhabitants,  most  of  them  Danes 
and  Eskimos. 

Review  of  Sections  170  to  176. — i.  What  part 
of  our  continent  does  Canada  occupy  ?  2.  Where 
are  its  highlands  ?     Its  lowlands  ? 

3.  Which  of  the  provinces  reaches  farthest 
south  ?  4.  What  are  the  chief  industries  of  this 
province  ?  5.  Where  are  the  great  Canadian 
wheat  fields  ?     6.    What  important  city  has  grown 


up  there  ?  7.  Where  is  the  gr.izing  region  ? 
8.  What  industry  is  being  developed  in  British 
Columbia  .'' 

9.  Where  are  the  Canadian  forests?  The 
Barren  Lands?  10.  Of  what  use  are  the  small 
trees  of  the  northern  forest  ? 

11.  Where  are  the  great  mines  of  gold?  Oi 
silver  ?     Of  nickel  ?     Of  coal  ? 

12.  What  is  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company? 
13.  Where  are  the  chief  fishing  grounds?  14 
Name  two  fishing  ports. 

15.  With  what  countries  does  Canada  trade' 
16.  Through  what  seaports  is  much  of  the  Euro- 
pean trade  carried  on?  17.  Which  ports  arc  not 
used  all  the  year  ?  Why  ?  18.  Name  the  leading 
Canadian  port  on  the  Pacific.  19.  How  is  trade 
carried  on  with  the  United  States  ?  20.  With  the 
interior  of  Canada  ? 

21.  What  other  colony  of  Great  Britain  is  near 
Canada  ?  22.  What  industries  are  carried  on 
there  ?     23.    What  is  the  chief  town  ? 

24.  To  what  country  does  Greenland  belong  r 
25.  What  part  of  it  is  inhabited  ?  26.  With  what 
is  most  of  the  island  covered  ? 


THE    SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES    OF 
NORTH    AMERICA 


MEXICO 

177.  Size  and  Surface. — Mexico,  like 
Greenland,  is  about  one  fourth  the  size  of 
the  United  States.  Its  more  favorable 
climate,  however,  enables  it  to  support  a 
large  population. 

The  coast  line  is  long  and  regular,  with 
few  good  harbors.  What  gulf  is  east  of 
Mexico  ?    What  ocean  is  west  ? 

Excepting  the  lowlands  along  both 
coasts,  the  northern  and  larger  part  of 
Mexico  is  a  high  plateau  bordered  by  still 
higher  mountain  ranges.  This  plateau 
with  its  bordering  mountains  is  a  part  of 
the  Cordilleras  of  western  North  America. 
It  is  broadest  at  the  north,  and  narrows 
rapidly  toward  the  southeast.  At  the 
southern  end,  the  plateau  is  shut  in  by  a 


group  of  volcanic  peaks.  Some  of  them 
are  so  high  that  even  in  midsummer  their 
higher  slopes  are  covered  with  snow. 
Southeast  of  the  plateau  region  the  sur- 
face is  very  irregular,  although  there  are 
some  broad  lowlands. 

178.  Climate. — The  eastern  lowlands 
and  the  lower  mountain  slopes  are  hot. 
Tiic  winds  are  from  the  Gulf,  and  over 
parts  of  this  region  the  rainfall  is  heavy. 
The  higher  mountain  slopes  and  the 
plateau,  which  is  about  6000  feet  high,  are 
much  cooler.  On  the  higher  parts  of  the 
eastern  mountain  slopes,  and  over  the 
eastern  part  of  the  plateau,  the  rainfall  is 
usually  sufficient  for  crops.  The  western 
part  of  the  plateau  receives  less  rain  and 
is  almost  a  desert  in  places.  Here  irri- 
gation must  be  used  if  crops  are  grown. 


i6o 


NORTH   AMERICA 


F:s. 


Cattle  ranch  in  northern  Mexico 


In  the  far  south  there  are  differences  in 
temperature  owing  to  differences  in  alti- 
tude, but  the  rainfall  is  heavy  on  both 
highlands  and  lowlands.  The  west  coast 
and  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California  are 
hot  and  dry.  Most  of  the  rivers  are 
mountain  streams  and  are  short  and 
rapid. 

179.  Industries. — The  differences  in 
temperature  and  rainfall  result  in  differ- 
ences in  the  crops  grown.  The  hot,  moist 
parts  of  the  countn,-  produce  an  abundance 
of  tropical  fruits,  and  here  also  are  great 
rubber  plantations.  In  the  dense  forests 
of  these  regions  are  found  such  valuable 
woods  as  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  eb- 
ony. In  places  where  it  is  not  too  hot, 
coffee,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  and  tobacco 
are  raised.     The  higher,  more  temperate 


regions  produce  corn  and 
wheat.  Some  parts  of  the 
temperate  region  are  irri- 
gated. The  dry  plateau  of 
northwestern  Mexico  is  good 
only  for  pasture  lands,  and 
many  thousands  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses  are  raised 
there  (Fig.  272). 

The  Mexican  gold  and 
silver  mines  are  very  rich. 
They  were  worked  by  the  native  people 
long  before  the  New  World  was  discovered 
by  Columbus,  and  are  still  producing  great 
quantities  of  these  precious  metals  (Fig. 
273).  More  silver  is  mined  in  Mexico 
than  in  any  other  country  except  the 
United  States.  Mexico  also  produces  much 
petroleum  (Fig.  274),  and  has  mines  of 
copper,  lead,  and  precious  stones. 

180.  Cities  and  Trade. — Mexico,  the 
largest  city  and  the  capital,  is  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  plateau.  It  is 
connected  by  rail  with  the  United  States 
and  Central  America,  with  the  seaport  of 
Vera  Cruz  on  the  east  coast,  and  with 
smaller  ports  on  the  west.  Most  of  the  sea 
trade  with  Mexico  is  carried  on  through 
these  ports.  Tampico,  on  the  east  coast, 
is  near  the  petroleum  districts. 


MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


i6i 


Fig.  275.     Ruins  of  an  ancient  Indian  temple,  Mexico 


i8i.  History  and  People. — When  the 
first  white  settlers  from  Euro])e  reached 
the  New  World,  they  found  it  inhahited 
by  Indians.  Many  of  the  Indian  tribes 
lived  chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and 
wandered  from  place  to  place. 

In  Mexico,  however,  most  of  the  In- 
dians had  learned  to  cultivate  the  fields, 
and  they  depended  chiefly  upon  agricul- 
ture for  their  food.  They  made  beautiful 
articles  of  gold  and  silver.  They  built 
large  cities  and  temples,  the  ruins  of 
which  may  still  be  seen 
(Fig.  27s). 

The  first  w  hite  people 
to  visit  Mexico  did  not 
intend  to  live  in  that 
country.  All  that  they 
wanted  was  the  gold 
and  silver  found  there. 
They  conquered  the 
country  and  compelled 
many  of  the  native 
Indians  to  work  in  the 
mines. 

The  present  popula- 
tion is  about  one  sev- 
enth that  of  the  United 
States.  Of  the  Mexi- 
cans one  fifth  are  white 
people,    two    fifths    are 


Indians,  and  two  fifths  are  of  mixed  blood. 
Those  of  mixed  blood  have  parents  or 
ancestors  who  are  not  of  the  same  race. 

For  about  three  hundred  years  Mexico 
was  ruled  by  Spain,  the  country  from 
which  the  white  settlers  came.  Then  the 
Mexicans  set  up  for  themselves  a  govern- 
ment like  that  of  the  United  States.  But 
their  president  often  rules  the  country  as 
he  pleases. 

Review  of  Sections  177  to  181. — i.   Where  is 

Mexico  ?  2.  How  docs  it  compare  with  the 
United  States  in  size?  3.  What  part  of  Mexico 
is  a  plateau  ?     4.    Where  are  the  lowlands  ? 

5.  What  part  of  Mexico  is  hot  ?  Which  part 
is  cool  ?  Why  .''  6.  Where  is  the  rainfall  heavy  ? 
Where  is  it  light  ? 

7.  Where  are  the  forests  ?  8.  What  valuable 
woods  are  found  in  the  forests  ?  9.  What  crops 
are  grown  in  the  hot  regions  ?  In  the  temperate 
regions?  10.  Where  are  the  grazing  lands? 
II.  What  valuable  products  are  taken  from  the 
Mexican  mines  ? 

12.  Where  is  the  city  of  Mexico?  13.  Name 
a  seaport  of  Mexico. 

14.  Who  were  the  early  inliaiiitants  of  Mexico  ? 
15.  What  industry  did  they  carry  on  ?  16.  What 
happened  to  these  people  ? 


I 
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1 

JB 

ff  1  (1  f  j 

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WH^s 

■  Strl  1 

tVklF 

^st 

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■*aS^B 

MB% 

ijttn 

Et- 

ca^ 

tlg^nm 

SIm 

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Fig.  276.     Cathedral,  Mexico  city 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 
AND  THE  WEST 
INDIES 

182.  Central  America. 
— The  part  of  North 
America  southeast  of 
Mexico  has  for  many 
years  borne  the  name 
of  Central  America.  It 
now  includes  a  British 
colon}'  called  British 
Honduras,  and  six  re- 
publics,—  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  Salvador, 
Xicaragua,  Costa  Rica, 
and  Panama. 


iSz 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.   277.     A  banana  plant 


Fig.   278.     Young  coconut  palms,  Cuba 


The  surface  of  the  region  is  irregular. 
There  are  lowlands  along  the  east  coast, 
and  some  mountains  and  hills  in  the  west 
and  southwest.  The  winds  are  from  the 
northeast,  and  the  heaviest  rainfall  is 
upon  the  eastern  lowlands  and  mountain 
slopes.  They  are  regions  of  dense  forests, 
but  with  few  inhabitants,  as  these  lands 
are  unhealthful.  The  southern  and 
western  mountain  slopes  are  somewhat 
drier  and  cooler,  and  support  a  greater 
number  of  people. 

The  population  is  made  up  chiefly  of 
Indians,  half-breeds,  and  negroes.  Most 
of  them  do  not  have  to  work  hard  for 
a  living,  and  wars  are  frequent.  Tropical 
fruits  (Fig.  277),  coffee,  and  sugar  are 
the  chief  crops.  The  forests  yield  rubber 
and  valuable  woods. 

Guatemala  is  the  largest  city  in  Central 
America.  Colon  is  at  the  north  end,  and 
Panama  at  the  south  end,  of  the  canal 
across  the  isthmus. 

183.  The  West  Indies. — The  long  chain 
of  islands  that  shuts  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  made  up  of 
two  groups.  One  of  them  is  known  as 
the  Greater  Antilles  and  consists  of  four 


large  islands,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Jamaica,  and 
Porto  Rico.  The  other  group,  called  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  is  made  up  of  many 
islands  which  are  much  smaller.  They 
lie  in  a  curve  from  a  point  near  the  eastern 
end  of  Porto  Rico  almost  to  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America.  North  of  Cuba 
and  Haiti,  and  east  of  Florida,  is  another 
group  of  small  islands,  called  the  Bahamas. 

Of  the  larger  islands,  Porto  Rico  be- 
longs to  the  United  States  (Sec.  166). 
The  West  Indies  are  in  about  the  same 
latitude  as  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The 
climate  and  products  are  also  much  alike. 
Most  of  the  time  the  winds  come  from 
the  northeast,  and  the  heaviest  rainfall 
is  on  the  northern  and  eastern  sides  of 
the  islands.  Sometimes  violent  whirling 
storms  called  hurricanes  sweep  over  the 
West  Indies,  wrecking  buildings,  destroy- 
ing crops,  and  killing  i)eople. 

The  leading  industry  is  agriculture,  and 
the  chief  crops  are  sugar  and  tobacco. 
Coffee,  spices,  bananas,  oranges,  and  other 
tropical  fruits  are  grown  (Fig.  278).  An- 
other jiroduct  is  cacao  beans,  from  which 
ciiocolate  is  made.  In  the  forests  many 
valuable  trees  are  found. 


CENTRAL   AMERICA.   WEST   INDIES 


163 


The  products  of  the  Bahamas 
arc  Hkc  those  ot  tlic  other  is- 
lands ;  but  in  addition  to  these, 
sponges  are  taken  from  the  warm 
waters  which  surround  the  is- 
lands (Fig.  279).  These  animals 
are  like  masses  of  jelly  when  hrst 
brought  to  the  surface.  After 
the  jelly-like  substance  is  re- 
moved, a  soft  skeleton  is  left. 
This  is  the  sponge  that  we  use. 

Cuba,  the  largest  of  the  West 
Indies,  is  now  a  republic  under 
the  protection  of  the  United 
States.  For  many  years  it  be- 
longed to  Spain,  but  the  Cubans 

gained  their  freedom  by  a  war  in  1898  in     The   Lesser  Antilles?     10.   Where   are   the   Ha- 

which    they    had    the    hel])    of    the    peoi)le      hanias.?     11.    What   islands  on  the   Pacific  are  in 

f  .  ahoiit    the    same    latitude    as    the    West    Indies.? 

or  our  country.  ,,,,  \.      u      ■  •  r  n  5     wjl    3 

-'  12.    Where     is     the     heaviest     rainfall.'       Why? 

Haiti     IS     divided     bet\yeen     two     negro  13.    what    are    the    Important    industries    of    the 

republics.      Of  the  other  islands,  Jamaica,  islands?     14.    What  are  the  products  ?      15.  Where 

the     Bahama     group,     and    several    of    the  are  sponges  found  ?      16.    Hew  are  they  prepared 

I  \       MI        1     1  /^  n   •      ■  for  use  ? 

Lesser  Antilles  belong   to   Cireat    Britain, 


and  the  remainder  to  other  European 
countries  and  to  the  L^nited  States. 
Trinidad,  the  largest  of  the  Lesser  An- 
tilles, is  one  of  the  British  islands.  It  has 
a  valuable  lake  of  asphalt,  a  substance 
used  for  street  pavements  (Fig.  280). 

Havana,  in  Cuba,  is  the  largest  city  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  Kingston,  in  Ja- 
maica, is  another  port  of  importance. 
Much  of  the  trade  is  with  the  United 
States,  and  steamships  visit  the  islands 
on    regular   voyages. 

Review  of  Sections  182  and  183. — i.  Where  is 
Central  America  ?  2.  What  countries  does  it 
include?  3.  Describe  the  surface  of  this  group. 
4.  Where  are  the  dense  forests  ?  5.  Where  do 
most  of  the  people  live  ? 

6.  What  are  the  chief  crops  ?  7.  What  prod- 
ucts are  obtained  from  the  forests  ?  8.  Name 
three  cities  in  Central  America. 

9.    What  islands  are  called  the  Greater  Antilles  ? 


17.    How    did    Cuba    gain    its    independence? 

18.  Which     island     has     two     negro     republics? 

19.  Which  group  and  which  large  islands  belong 
to  (jieat  Britain  ?  20.  Where  is  Trinidad,  and 
what  is  its  chief  product  ? 

21.    Where       are       Havana       and       Kingston? 
22.    What  country  gets  much  of  their  trade? 


SOUTH    AMERICA 


THE   LAND 

184.  South  America  Compared  with 
North  America. — The  continent  ot  South 
America  is  southeast  of  North  America, 
and  is  connected  with  it  by  the  narrow 
isthmus  of  Panama  (Fig.  283).  What 
ocean  borders  South  America  on  the  north  .'' 
What  ocean  is  on  the  east .''  On  the 
west .''  Into  which  ocean  do  most  of  the 
rivers  flow  ? 

The  physical  maps  of  the  two  con- 
tinents (Figs.  134  and  283)  show  that  in 
some  ways  they  are  much  ahke.  They 
are  of  nearly  the  same  size  and  have  about 
the  same  shape.  North  America,  how- 
ever, is  a  little  larger  and  has  a  more 
irregular  coast  line  and  a  greater  number 


of  good  harbors.  In  both  continents  the 
longer  and  higher  mountains  are  in  the 
west,  and  the  shorter  and  lower  moun- 
tains are  in  the  east.  Between  the  two 
highland  regions  in  each  continent  there 
is  a  great  central  plain.  In  both  conti- 
nents the  central  plain  is  drained  toward 
the  north,  the  east  and  the  south,  by 
large,  navigable  rivers. 

185.  Climate. — In  climate  there  are 
great  differences  between  the  two  con- 
tinents. The  broad  northern  part  of 
North  America  is  cold  even  in  the  sum- 
mer time,  and  in  the  winter  the  ground 
is  frozen  and  usually  covered  with  snow 
or  ice.  But  the  broad  northern  part  of 
South  America  is  in  the  hot  part  of  the 
earth    (Fig.    124).     Here    most    of     the 


i6s 


70**     I-onKltuJn        CO*    Wr-nt    from      60"     Grnonwlch       40 


i66 


CLIMATE  AND   SURFACE  OF  SOUTH   AMERICA 


167 


Ihere  is  also  rain 
along  the  northwest- 
ern shore  of  the 
continent  (Fig.  285). 
Between  this  moist 
northern  region  and 
the  rainy  region  of 
the  south,  the  nar- 
row coastal  plain  west 
of  the  great  moun- 
tains is  dry.  In  some 
parts  it  is  a  real 
desert.  The  winds 
from  the  east  have 
crossed  the  moun- 
tains and  have  lost 
most  of  their  mois- 
ture on  the  eastern 
winds  come  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (Fig.  side  ;  and  the  winds  over  the  Pacific  Ocean 
284).  With  them  comes  much  moisture,  blow  away  from  the  continent. 
which  falls  as  rain  on  the  great  plain  and  186.  The  Mountains,  the  Plains,  and 
on  the  eastern  mountain  slopes  (Fig.  285).  the  Rivers. — The  western  mountains, 
It  is  always  hard  for  men  to  work  in  a  known  as  the  Andes,  border  the  Pacific 
hot,  moist  country  like  this  part  of  South  Ocean  from  the  Strait  of  Magellan  to  the 
America.  Trees  and  plants  there  grow  Caribbean  Sea  (Fig.  283).  At  the  south 
rapidly.  In  places  they  grow  so  rapidly  they  rise  out  of  the  ocean  like  a  great 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  clear  the 
ground  and  cultivate  the  soil.     Much  of 


Fig.  2S4.  Prevailing  winds  of  South  America 


Fig.  285.     Rainfall  of  South  America 


the  broad  northern  part  of  the  continent 
is  a  dense  forest  where  trees,  vines,  and 
bushes  crowd  close  together.  Such  a 
region  is  very  different  from  the  cold, 
barren  plains  of  northern  Canada. 

Southern  South  America  is  in  the  tem- 
perate part  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
where  the  winds  are  from  the  west  (Fig. 


wall.  This  is  the  region  where  the  winds 
are  from  the  west.  The  upper  slopes  are 
covered  with  snow,  and  glaciers  are  formed 
in  the  higher  mountain  valleys.  Farther 
north,  parallel  ranges  inclose  high  plateaus, 
and  there  is  a  narrow  coastal  plain  between 
the  mountains  and  the  ocean. 

The  Andes  are  not  so  broad  as  the 
Cordilleras  of  North  America,  but  they 
are  much  higher.      Even  at  the  Equator 


284).     With    them   comes   moisture   from  some  of   the  peaks    tower   to  such   great 

the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  rain  and  snow  fall  heights   that    they  are  white  with   ever- 

on  the  western  slopes  of  the  mountains,  lasting  fields  of  snow. 

The  eastern  plains  over  which  the  winds  The  eastern  highlands  are  much  lower 

pass  after  crossing  the  mountains,  receive  than  the  western,  and  are  separated  into 

much  less  rain,  although  usually  enough  two    parts    by   the    broad    valley   of  the 

for  an  abundant  growth  of  grass.  Amazon    River.     The    northern    part    is 


i68 


PEOPLE,  ANIMALS,  AND  PLANTS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


169 


called  the  Guiana  High- 
lands, and  the  southern, 
the  Brazilian  Highlands. 
Both  are  plateaus  with 
low  ranges  crossing  them. 

The  largest  part  of  the 
central  plain  is  drained 
by  the  Amazon  and  its 
tributaries  (Fig.  283). 
The  land  is  low  and 
nearly  level.  Much  of 
it  is  covered  with  forests 
and  is  called  sihas  (Fig. 
287) .  The  river  is  broad 
and  deep  and  carries 
more  water  to  the  sea 
than  any  other  river  in 
the  world.  On  it  large 
ships  can  go  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  foothills 
of  the  Andes. 

The  northern  part  of  the  plain  is 
drained  by  the  Orinoco  River,  and  is 
called  the  llanos.  During  the  rainy  season 
the  llanos  are  covered  with  grass  which  dries 
up  during  the  dry  season  that  follows. 

The  central  plain  south  of  the  Amazon 
basin  is  drained  by  the  Plata  and  its 
tributaries.  This  is  a  region  of  lighter 
rainfall  than  the  Amazon  Valley.  In  the 
western  part  there  are  great  grassy  plains 
called  pampas,  much  like  the  western 
plains  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  293). 

Review  of  Sections  184  to  186. — i.  In  what 
direction  is  South  America  from  North  America.? 

2.  How  do  the  two  continents  compare  in  size  .' 
In  form  ?  In  the  position  of  their  highlands  and 
lowlands.'     In  the  drainage  of  the  great  plain.'' 

3.  Which  continent  has  the  more  regular  coast 
line .'  Which  has  the  larger  number  of  good 
harbors  ? 

4.  What  winds  blow  over  the  broad  part  of 
South  America  .'  5.  What  parts  of  this  region 
have  rain  ?  6.  Where  are  the  dense  forests .' 
7.    Why  is  there  little  agriculture  here  ? 


Fig.  287.     Silvas,  South  America 


8.  Where  is  the  temper- 
ate part  of  South  America  f 
9.  From  what  direction  do 
the  winds  come  ?  10.  On 
which  side  of  the  moun- 
tains is  the  heavy  rainfall  ? 
1 1 .  Where  are  the  grass- 
lands ? 

12.  What  other  part  of 
the  western  coast  has  rain  r 
13.  Where  on  the  western 
coast    is    there    little    rain  ? 

14.  How  do  the  Andes 
Mountainscomparein  height 
and  width  with  the  Cordil- 
leras of  North  America  r 
15.  Where  are  the  eastern 
highlands.?  i6.  Into  what 
two  parts  are  they  divided  ? 

17.  By  what  river  is  the 
northern  part  of  the  great 
central  plain  drained  .?  The 
southern  part?  18.  What 
are  the  silvas  ?  The  llanos  \ 
The  pampas  ? 


PEOPLE,  ANIMALS,  AND  PLANTS 

187.  The  People  and  their  Industries. 
— Not  long  after  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World,  the  people  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  learned  that  there  were  valuable 
mines  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  mountains 
of  South  America.  When  they  came  in 
search  of  these  precious  metals  they 
found  the  country  already  inhabited. 
The  natives,  like  those  of  North  America, 
were  called  Indians.  Many  of  them  were 
savages,  but  the  Incas,  who  lived  in  the 
mountains  of  Peru,  were  almost  civilized. 
They  had  learned  to  make  cloth,  pottery, 
and  beautiful  articles  of  gold  and  silver, 
and  they  built  wonderful  roads  and  stone 
buildings.  The  Spaniards  conquered 
many  of  the  natives,  and  settled  in  the 
Andes  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Plata. 
The  Portuguese  settled  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  continent.  Some  negroes  were 
brouglit  there  from  Africa. 


lyo 


SOUTH   AMERICA 


Fig.  288.     Llamas  in  Ecuador 


Most  of  the  people  of  South  America 
are  descendants  of  these  early  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  settlers,  or  of  Indians, 
negroes,  and  persons  of  mixed  blood.  In 
the  past  few  years  other  Europeans  and 
men  from  the  United  States  have  settled 
there  and  are  helping  to  work  the  mines 
and  farms,  and  to  build  railroads  and 
factories.  The  ])oi)ulation  of  South 
America  is  less  than  half  that  of  North 
America.  All  the  countries  are  inde- 
pendent republics,  except  the  Guianas. 

I  he  chief  industries  are  mining,  graz- 
ing, and  agriculture.  Mining  is  carried 
on  chiefly  in  the  mountain  regions,  and 
grazing  on  the  grassy  plains.  Agricul- 
ture is  develo|)ing  in  those  |)arts  of  the 
country  where  the  soil  and  climate  are 
favorable,  or  where  irrigation  laii  be 
used.  Coffee,  wheat,  cacao,  and  cotton 
are  among  the  important  crops. 

Most  of  the  commerce  of  South  America 
is  with  European  countries.  Commerce 
with  the  I'nired  States  is  increasing 
rai)idly,  now  that  the  Panama  Canal  has 


been  completed.  In  addition  to  the  three 
great  river  systems,  which  are  navigable 
for  hundreds  of  miles.  South  America 
has  many  railroads.  Only  one  of  them 
crosses  the  Andes. 

i88.  Native  Animals  and  Plants. — 
The  llama  (Fig.  288),  an  animal  tamed 
by  the  Incas,  is  found  on  the  higher  slopes 
of  the  Andes.  It  is  used  to  carry  loads 
along  the  mountain  paths.  The  alpaca, 
a  similar  animal,  is  especially  valuable 
for  its  wool.  The  condor,  the  largest  of 
birds,  is  also  found  in  the  higher  Andes. 
The  jaguar  is  a  fierce  and  powerful  animal 
much  like  the  tiger  of  Asia.  It  is  found 
in  many  parts  of  South  America,  and  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  In  the 
tropical  forests  there  are  serpents, 
monkeys,  bright-colored  insects,  and 
birds  with  beautiful  plumage,  such  as 
parrots.  The  rhea,  a  bird  much  like  the 
ostrich,  lives  on  the  southern  plains. 

Corn  and  the  potato,  now  known  and 
cultivated  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
were  native  plants  of  South  America,  and 
were  grown  by  some  of  the  Indians. 
The  cinchona  tree,  from  the  bark  of 
which  the  bitter  medicine,  quinine,  is 
made,  is  also  a  native  of  this  continent. 
Several  varieties  of  rubber  trees  are 
found  in  the  forests. 

Review  of  Sections  187  and  188. — i.    Why  did 

inoplc-  from  Spain  and  Portugal  settle  in  South 
America.''  2.  Where  did  tlicy  find  Indians  who 
wen-  ahiiost  civilized  .?  3.  What  had  these  In- 
dians learned  to  do  .?  4.  Where  did  the  Spaniards 
settle?      Tlie  Portuguese.'' 

5.  What  are  the  chief  industries  in  South 
Anierica  ?  6.  Name  several  important  crops. 
7.  With  wli.it  other  parts  of  the  world  do  South 
American  countries  carry  on  commerce  ? 

S.  What  is  the  llama  ?  Of  what  use  is  it  ? 
9.  Name  some  of  the  other  animals  of  South 
America.  10.  What  two  important  plants  were 
prown  by  Indians  in  South  America?  11.  What 
is  made  from  the  hark  of  the  cinchona  tree? 


BRAZIL 


171 


COUNTRIES 

189.  Brazil. — Brazil  is  in  the  eastern 
part  of  South  America.  How  does  it 
compare  in  size  with  other  South  American 
countries  (Fig.  286)  .''  It  is  somewhat 
hirger  than  the  United  States,  with  a 
popuhition  less  than  one  third  as  great. 
The  population  is  small  because  so  much 
of  the  country  is  low,  very  rainy,  and 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion (Sec.  185),  and  is  in  the  hot  part  of 
the  earth  (Fig.  124),  where  only  the 
natives  can  live  and  work  comfortably. 
Most  of  the  people  of  Brazil  live  in  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  country,  either  in  the 
south  or  in  the  highlands  near  the  coast. 

A  few  Indians  live  in  the  forests  of  the 
interior.  They  are  often  employed  in 
finding  rubber  trees,  and  in  preparing  the 
crude  rubber.  They  first  cut  gashes  in 
the  bark  of  the  rubber  trees  and  catch  the 
milky  sap  in  cups.  The  sap  is  collected 
daily.  To  prepare  it  for  shipment  it 
must  be  made  into  balls  of  crude  rubber. 
This  is  done  by  pouring  a  little  of  the  sap 
over  a  stick  that  is  turned  slowly  around 


in  the  dense  smoke  of  a  fire  of  palm  nuts. 
As  soon  as  the  sap  dries  on  the  stick, 
more  is  poured  on  and  smoked,  and  the 
process  is  repeated  many  times  until  a 
large  ball  is  formed.  Most  of  the  rubber 
is  sent  to  the  city  of  Para,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  from  this 
port  it  is  carried  in  ships  to  the  United 
States  or  to  Europe. 

In  the  plateau  region  of  eastern  and 
southern  Brazil  the  chief  industry  is 
farming.  Among  the  crops  cultivated 
are  coffee  (Fig.  290),  cotton,  sugar  cane, 
tobacco,  and  cacao.  Of  these  crops,  coffee 
is  the  most  important,  and  Brazil  now 
produces  two  thirds  of  the  world's  supply. 

The  ripe  berries  of  the  coffee  shrub  are 
often  called  "  cherries  "  because  of  the 
fleshy  covering,  much  like  that  of  a 
cherry,  which  surrounds  the  two  seeds, 
or  "  beans."  In  preparing  the  coffee  for 
market,  this  fleshy  covering  is  first  re- 
moved. The  beans  are  then  spread  out 
on  large  trays  or  platforms  to  dry,  and 
are  turned  frequently  to  prevent  their 
spoiling.  Finally  they  are  sorted  and 
packed  in  sacks  for  shipment. 


m^fiii:^^.. 


BRAZIL,  ARGENTINA 


173 


In  the  forests  are  found  woods  used  in 
the  making  of  fine  furniture,  and  woods 
from  which  dyes  are  made.  Another 
tree  of  the  forests  is  the  cacao,  from  the 
seeds  of  which  chocolate  is  made. 

Cattle  are  raised  on  the  grasslands  in 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  chief  mineral  products  of  Brazil 
are  gold  and  diamonds,  which  are  found 
in  the  plateau  region. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital,  is  the  second 
city  in  size  in  South  America.  It  is  a 
large  seaport  with  a  fine  harbor  (Fig.  291). 
Santos,  farther  south,  is  the  chief  port  for 
the  shipment  of  colTee.  Baliia  and  Per- 
nambuco,  on  the  coast  to  the  north,  export 
sugar  and  tobacco.  Para,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon,  ex[)orts  more  rubber  than 
any  other  port  in  the  world.  Manaos,  in 
the  Amazon  basin  a  thousand  miles  from 
the  sea,  is  a  rubber-shipping  center. 

Review  of  Section  189.  ~i.  Where  is  Brazil. - 
2.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  United 
States.''  3.  How  do  these  two  countries  compare 
in  population  ? 

4.  Where  are  rubber  trees  found  ?  v  How 
is  the  crude  rubber  prepared  for  market .' 

6.  Where  is  the  farminq;  region  of  Brazil  .' 
7.    What   are   the   important  crops  ?     8.    How  is 


coffee  prepared  for  shipment  ?  9.  What  other 
products  are  important  ?  10.  Where  are  the 
grazing  lands  .?  11.  Where  is  the  mining  region.' 
12.  Which  of  the  following  cities  are  on  the 
coast,  and  which  one  is  in  the  interior:  Rio  de 
Janeiro  ?      Santos  .'      Bahia  .''      Para  .'     Manaos  .'' 

190.    Countries   of    the    Plata    Basin. — 

The  three  countries  of  the  Plata  basin  are 
Argentina,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay. 

Argentina  is  larger  and  has  greater 
wealth  than  any  other  country  of  South 
America,  except  Brazil.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  country  is  a  vast  plain  which 
stretches  through  its  entire  length.  What 
part  is  in  the  Plata  basin  .''  What  moun- 
tains border  Argentina  on  the  west  .'' 

Argentina  is  in  a  temi)erate  part  of  the 
earth  (Fig.  124),  and  its  crops  are  like 
those  of  the  United  States.  In  the  north- 
east there  is  plenty  of  rain  and  it  is  warm 
enough  to  allow  cotton,  sugar  cane, 
tobacco,  and  tropical  fruits  to  be  raised. 
Farther  south,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  there  are  large  wheat  fields,  and 
Argentina  is  one  of  the  great  wheat- 
growing  countries  of  fhe  world.  Corn 
and  fiax  also  are  grown  in  large  quantities. 
Wheat,  corn,  and  linseed  oil,  made  from 
flax  seed,  are  the  most  important  agricul- 
tural exports. 


174 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


West  of  the  wheat  country  and  farther 
south  are  the  grazing  lands,  where  enor- 
mous herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  find 
pasture  (Fig.  293).  Live  cattle,  frozen, 
salted,  or  dried  meat,  meat  extracts,  wool, 
hides,  and  tallow  are  exported. 

Btienos  Aires,  on  the  Plata  River,  is 
the  capital  and  great  railroad  center  of 
Argentina.  It  is  the  largest  city  in 
South  yVmerica  and  the  chief  port  for  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  continent.  It 
has  important  and  growing  manufactur- 
ing industries   (Fig.   294). 

The  two  smaller  countries  of  the  Plata 
basin,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  have  a 
heavier  rainfall  than  Argentina.  There 
are  some  forests,  hut  the  ciiicf  industry 
in  both  countries  is  cattle  raising.  Uru- 
guay also  raises  large  crops  of  wheat,  and 
Paraguay  grows  tropical  fruits.  Most 
of  the  exports  are  like  those  of  Argentina. 

Mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  is  so  called 
because  it  is  used  in  tlie  place  of  tea.  It 
is  made  from  the  leaves  of  a  tree  that 
grows  both  in  Brazil  and  in  Paraguay. 
Mate  leaves  are  exported  to  other  Soutli 
American  countries. 

Asuncion,  the  ca|)ital  of  Paraguay,  is 
an  important  river  port,  and  is  connected 
by    rail    with  Buenos  Aires.     Montevideo, 


the  capital  of  Uruguay^  is 
a  large  city  and  carries  on 
much  foreign  commerce. 

Review    of     Section    190. — 

I.  \\  here  is  AiRcntina  ?  2.  How 
dees  it  rank  among  the  countries 
of  South  America  in  size  and 
wealth  .''  3.  What  are  the  chief 
crops  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  country  ?  4.  Where 
is     the     wheat-raising     region  ? 

5.  What  other  crops  are  raised  ? 

6.  Where  are  the  grazing  re- 
gions ?  7.  What  agricultural 
products    are   exported  ?     What 

cattle  products .''     8.    Where  is   Buenos  Aires  .'' 

9.  Where  is  Paraguay  .''  Uruguay  .''  10.  What 
is  the  chief  industry  in  each  of  these  countries  ? 

11.  Name     other     products     of     each     country. 

12.  Where  is  Asuncion  .''     Montevideo.^ 

191.    Countries   of  the    Andes. — There 

are  four  countries  in  the  Andes  group : 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador.  Of 
these  Chile  lies  farthest  south,  on  the 
west  slope  of  the  Andes.  Using  the  scale 
of  miles,  find  out  how  long  Chile  is  from 
north  to  south  (Fig.  286). 

At  the  southern  end  the  Andes  are 
lower  than  they  are  farther  north.  They 
are  in  a  region  of  heavy  rains  (Fig.  285), 
and  their  lower  slopes  and  the  rocky 
islands  offshore  are  covered  with  forests. 


Fig.  294.     An  avenue  in  Buenos  Aires 


e'liii.K 


175 


Fig.   295.     Farms  in  niiual  Clnk.      In  the  back^iuuud  is  a  lake 


In  central  Chile  there  is  a  long  and 
narrow  valley  between  the  Andes  and  a 
lower  coast   range.     This   is   the  agricul- 


tural and  grazing  section  of  the  country 
(Fig.  295).  Some  parts  of  it  need  to 
be  irrigated,  but  it  produces  a  great  va- 
riety of  crops.  These  include,  at  the 
south,  grain  and  other  products  of  tem- 
perate climates,  and  at  the  north,  tropical 
fruits.  Many  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised. 
The  most  important  industry  of  Chik- 
is  mining.  Copper  is  mined  in  large 
quantities,  and  some  gold  and  silver  are 
found.  The  chief  mineral  deposits,  how- 
ever, are  those  of  nitrate,  in  the  dry 
northern  part  of  the  country  (Fig.  296). 
From  these  deposits  a  whitish  powder  is 
prepared  which  is  exported  to  the  United 


States  and  European  countries.  It  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder 
and  of  fertilizers. 

Falparaiso,  the  principal  port,  has  a 
poor  harbor,  but  it  is  the  best  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  South  America  (Fig.  297). 
It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Santiago,  the 
capital,  and  across  the  Andes  with  Buenos 
Aires.  Through  Valparaiso  the  agricul- 
tural region  of  the  central  valley  finds  an 
outlet. 

The  shipping  point  for  the  nitrate 
fields  is  Iqiiique.  As  northern  Chile  is  a 
desert,  the  fresh  water  needed  both  at  the 
port  and  at  the  nitrate  works  is  brought 
from  the  mountains  in  large  pipes. 

On  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is  Punta 
Arenas,  the  most  southern  city  in  the 
world. 


"T^^HSswi 


Fig.  297.     The  harbor,  Valparaiso 


176 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


m 


Fig.  298.     Mt.  Chimborazo,  Ecuador,  covered  with  perpetual  snow 


Chile  is  one  of  the  most  progressive 
countries  of  South  America.  As  in  Argen- 
tina and  Brazil,  there  are  free  schools,  and 
extensive  railroads  and  telegraph  lines. 
These  three  large  and  progressive  coun- 
tries are  often  called  the  A  B  C  countries 
of  South  America,  from  the  first  letters 
in  their  names. 

Bolivia  once  extended  to  the  coast, 
but  lost  that  part  of  its  territory  in  a  war 
with  Chile.  Witli  this  exception,  Bolivia, 
Peru,  and  Ecuador  are  muth  alike. 

There  is  a  narrow  coastal  lowland  which 
at  the  south  is  a  desert,  joining  that  of 
northern  Chile.  At  the  north  this  coastal 
plain  is  well  watered  and  yields  large  crops 
where  cultivated. 

East  of  the  coast  region,  the 
mountains  of  all  three  coiuitries  rise 
to  great  heights  and  inclose  high 
plateaus  and  valleys.  Both  the 
plateaus  and  the  western  mountain 
slopes  are  cold  and  dry.  1  hey  are 
cold  because  of  the  great  elevation, 
and  (irv  because  the  winds  here  are 
from  the  east  (Fig.  284).  Only  the 
long  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  lowlands  that  join  it  on  the 
east,  receive  uhk  h  rain. 

Agriculture  and  mining  are  the 
leafling  industries  of  Bolivia,  Bern, 
and  I'.cuador.  Most  of  the  agricul- 
ture is  in  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the 


mountain  streams,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Andes. 
Cotton  and  sugar  are  raised 
in  Peru,  and  cacao  and 
cinchona  trees  in  Ecuador. 
Rubber  is  obtained  from 
trees  that  grow  in  the 
eastern  forests. 

The  rich  mineral  deposits 
of  the  Andes  still  continue 
to  yield  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  tin,  as 
they  did  in  the  days  of  the  Incas.  Tin 
ore  is  the  chief  export  of  Bolivia. 

One  interesting  industry  is  the  weaving 
of  fine  straw  hats  by  the  natives  of 
Ecuador  and  Peru.  The  best  hats  are 
woven  under  water,  and  it  takes  a  long 
time  to  make  one.  They  are  sent  to  our 
country  by  way  of  Panama,  and  for  this 
reason  are  known  as  Panama  hats. 

A  wonderful  mountain  railroad  has 
been  built  from  Callao,  the  principal  port 
of  Peru,  to  Lima,  its  capital.  From  that 
point  it  is  continued  for  a  long  distance 
into  the  mountains  (Fig.  299).  Another 
line  runs  from  Mollendo,  a  ])ort  in  southern 
Peru,  to  Lake  Titicaca,  where  it  connects 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE   ANDES  AND  OF  THE  NORTH  COAST 


177 


Fig.  300.     Water  front  and  market,  Guayaquil 


with  steamers.  La  Paz,  the  capital  of 
I  Bolivia,  is  on  a  plateau  more  than  two 
miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Pacific  ports. 
Guayaquil,  the  chief  port  and  city  of 
JA-uador  (Fig.  300),  is  joined  to  Quito,  the 
capital,  by  railroad.  The  eastern  parts 
of  all  these  countries 
have  an  outlet  to  the 
Atlantic  through  the 
Amazon  and  its  tribu- 
taries. 

Review  of  Section  191. — 
I .  Where  are  the  great  for- 
ests of  Chile  .''  2.  Why  are 
there  no  forests  in  northern 
Chile?  3.  Where  is  the 
an;ricultural  and  grazing  sec- 
tion ?  What  crops  are  produced  there  ?  4.  Where 
are  the  nitrate  heds  .''     5.   Of  what  use  is  nitrate  ? 

6.  Where  is  X'alparaiso  ?  7.  With  what  city 
east  of  the  Andes  is  it  connected  by  rail  ? 
8.  Where  is  Santiago.'  9.  From  what  port  is 
most  of  the  nitrate  shipped  .' 

10.  Which  are  the  ABC  countries  of  South 
America  ? 

11.  W'hat  are  the  leading  industries  of  Bolivia, 
Peru,  and  Ecuador  ?  12.  W'here  are  Panama  hats 
manufactured  ?     How  did  they  get  this  name  ? 

13.  Where  is  Callao  ?  14.  How  is  it  con- 
nected with  Lima.?  15.  In  which  country  is  La 
Paz?     Gua\a(iuil  ?     Quito? 

192.    Countries  of  the   North    Coast. — 

The   countries   in    the   north   coast   group 

are    Colombia,    Venezuela,    and    Guiana. 


1 

'f«|BK9   '^V/ldV 

m^^HP 

v'JS^v  Hd^Hi^l 

'^mV^S^^Q/0^\_- 

ySL'4^^°  ^|HLi^l<Aq 

^9IHfc^i^^^l 

^^^iii..  ,     Mf^^mJ^^L^Ji 

PSMlfcl^^fflp^^ 

^^n 

^^■^^ik. 

Fig.  301. 

Cacao  pods  on  the  trees 

Which  two  of  these  border  on  the  Ciuib- 
bean  Sea  (Fig.  286)  ^  Which  one  borders 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean  .''  .All  three  countries 
are  near  the  Equator  and  in  the  hot  part 
of  the  earth  (Fig.  124).  In  the  moun- 
tains, however,  the  temperature  is  agree- 
able and  the  climate  healthful. 

On  the  coastal  lowlands  and  in  the  val- 
leys all  kinds  of  tropical  products  are  raised 
and  exported,  especially  coffee,  cacao  (Fig. 
301),  and  sugar.  On  the  llanos  of  Vene- 
zuela and  Colombia  cattle  raising  is  the 
great  industry,  and  hides  form  an  im- 
portant export.  In  the  higher  and  cooler 
regions  some  of  the  grains  and  fruits  of 
temperate  regions  are  grown.  In  the 
mountains  gold  is  mined.  Among  the 
exports  are  cinchona,  tobacco,  and  rubber. 
Guiana  is  the  only  one  of  the  South 
American  countries  not 
now  a  republic.  It  is 
divided  into  three  parts, 
which  are  colonies  of 
three  countries  in  Eu- 
rope,—  Great  Britain, 
the  Netherlands,  and 
France.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  sugar,  mo- 
lasses, and  cacao. 
Bogota  is  the  capital  and  largest  city  of 
Colombia,  and  Barranquilla,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Magdalena  River,  is  the 
chief  port.  Caracas,  the  capital  of  Vene- 
zuela, is  connected  by  a  mountain  rail- 
road with  La  Guaira,  the  most  important 
seaport.  Maracaibo,  in  western  Vene- 
zuela, on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  carries 
on  a  large  foreign  commerce. 

Review  of  Section  192. — i.  In  what  part  of 
the  countries  of  the  north  coast  can  people  best 
live  ?  2.  What  are  the  chief  products  of  this 
group  of  countries?  3.  To  what  three  countries 
of  Europe  do  the  three  parts  of  Guiana  belong? 
4.    Where  is  Bogota  ?     Caracas  ? 


178 


EUROPE 


THE   CONTINENT 


have  generally  been  called  separate  con- 
tinents, as  they  are  in  this  book. 

193.    Size    and   Position. — The     conti-  194.    The   Boundaries   of  Europe. — On 

nent  of  Europe  is  smaller  than  any  of  the  the   north,    west,    and    south,    Europe   is 

other   continents    except    Australia.      It  bordered  by  the  salt  waters  of  the  ocean, 

is  not  very  much  larger  than  the  United  or  of  the  gulfs,  bays,  and  seas  connected 

States.     It  is  so  much  smaller  than  Asia  with  the  ocean.     It  is  only  on  the  east 

that  on  a  globe  Europe  looks  like  a  huge  and  southeast,  where  it  joins  Asia,  that 

peninsula  of  the  larger  continent.  there  are  land  boundaries  (Figs.  302,  304, 

The  large  land  mass  formed  by  Europe  306). 
and  Asia  together  is  called  Eurasia,  and  The  coast  line  is  very  irregular.  In- 
in  some  books  it  is  described  as  a  single  deed,  no  other  continent  has  so  long  a 
continent.  This  is  because  the  land  con-  coast  line  for  so  small  an  area.  The  bays 
nection  between  the  two  continents  is  and  seas  reach  a  long  distance  inland 
so  very  broad,  and  is  without  a  good  toward  the  center  of  the  continent, 
natural  boundary.  But  the  people  of  There  are  also  large  peninsulas  that  ex- 
Europe  are  very  different  from  most  of  tend  into  the  bordering  waters.  Europe, 
the  people  of  Asia,  and  they  live  and  work  like  North  America,  includes  many  islands 
in  different  ways.  Europe  and  Asia  are  separated  from  the  mainland  by  shallow 
partly  separated  by  large  seas,  and  they  seas. 

179 


'nnDDDI^DDDD 
A 


1 80 


SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OF  EUROPE 


i8i 


IQS-  Surface. — The  maps 
of  Eurojic  show  tliat  the 
most  mountainous  part  ot 
the  continent  is  in  the  south. 
The  greatest  ranges  run  al- 
most east  and  west,  and  cut 
off  the  southern  peninsulas 
from  the  great  lowland  plain 
of  northern  and  eastern 
Europe. 

Where  is  the  Iherian  Pen- 
insula    (Fig.     304)  ?       The 
Italian  Peninsula  ?    The  Bal- 
kan Peninsula  ?     The  Pyre- 
nees are  north  of  the  Iberian 
Peninsula,  the  Alps  are  north 
of  the  Italian  Peninsula,  and 
the    Carpathian    Mountains 
are   some   distance  north  of  the   Balkan 
Peninsula.     In  each  of  the  three  penin- 
sulas there  are  smaller  ranges,  the  longest 
being  the  Apennines  in  Italy. 

The  highest  of  all  the  European  moun- 
tains are  the  Alps.  These  mountains 
are  very  beautiful  and  are  visited  every 
year  by  people  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  For  many  hundreds  of  years  the 
people  living  north  of  the  Alps  and  those 
living  south  have  traded  with  each  other. 
In  order  to  make  it  easy  for  traders  and 
travelers  to  cross  the  mountains,  many 
wonderful  carriage  roads  (Fig.  305)  and 
railroads  have  been  built.  Several  of 
the  railroads  pass  under  the  higher  moun- 
tain ranges  through  tunnels,  one  of  which 
is  more  than  twelve  miles  long. 

On  the  map  (Fig.  304)  find  the  Black 
Sea  ;  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  the  Baltic  Sea  ; 
the  North  Sea.  The  central  lowland  of 
Europe  is  widest  in  the  eastern  part, 
where  it  extends  from  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  south  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the 
north.     On  the  east  this  plain  joins  the 


Fig.  305.     A  winding  road  in  the  Alps.     Source  of  the  Rhone  River 


great  plain  of  northern  Asia,  and  on  the 
west  it  extends  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic 
and  North  seas. 

Northwest  of  the  central  lowland  there 
are  mountains  in  the  Scandinavian  Pen- 
insula. Find  this  peninsula  on  the  map 
(Fig.  304).  There  are  also  low  moun- 
tains in  the  British  Isles. 

The  Ural  range  borders  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  continent  and  extends 
almost  north  and  south.  For  much  of 
its  length  it  is  low.  It  forms  a  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

196.  Climate. — Most  of  Europe  is  in 
the  temperate  region  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  (Fig.  124).  It  has  a  mild 
climate  both  summer  and  winter,  espe- 
cially in  the  western  part.  The  climate 
is  mild  because  the  temperature  of  the 
ocean  does  not  change  quickly,  and  the 
winds  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  cooler 
than  the  land  in  summer  and  warmer 
than  the  land  in  winter.  These  winds 
from  the  Atlantic  also  bring  much  mois- 
ture  to   the    continent   (Figs.   308,   309). 


BuioKlffi 


Longitude 


Transfers  of  Territory 

1.  Geriuaoy  to  Belgium 

2.  GermtiDy  to  France 
3.3    Gerraauj- to  PoUcd 

1.  Germany  to  Danzig; 
f».   Geimaay  to  LitbunDi;i  (?) 
6.  Germany  to  Czechosloviiki.i 
",7^7,7.  -iiistria  to  Italy 
S.8,  8,8,  8.  Austria  aod  Hunj-ary  to 
Yugoslavia 
9.  Austria  and  Hungary  to 

Czechoslovakia 
10    Austria  to  Polaod 
11. 11.  Austria  and  Hungary  to 


13,  II.  Parta  of  Albania  in  din|>iitu 
15.  Moulcncgro  to  Yugoslavia 
10    Serbia  to  Yugonlavia 
17,  17,  17.   Bulgaria  to  Yugoslavia 

18.  Bulgaria  to  Greece 

19.  Turkey  to  Bulgaria 
20    Turkey  to  Greece 
21.   Kus%ia  to  Itourutala 

22,22.22.   RuMia  to  Poland 

23.   Part  of  Lithuania  in  dispute 

Runala  to  Lithuania  or  Poland 
21.   rtuuin  to  Lithuania 
a,2i.   Kuiiiu  to  I^atvla 

20.  Kuwia  toK«(honia 

27.  KuwIa  to  Finiimd 
TranAfcfB  bub)uct  to  Plubl^scltt- 

28.  Germany  to  Denmark 

(vot«d  lij  IVIV  to  I)i>nmark) 
29    Germany  to  Poland  ( 1021) 
?/}.  Marra  Iloakn,  Germany  to 
France  (voto  tu  l'J3S) 
31.  Turkey  to  Greoro  (vote  In  WZi) 


COPYflrOHT,  BY  AfcjtRICAH  BOOK  COMPANY 


Vig.  307 
TKHRITOItlAI,  CIlANfiKS  IN 

CENTRAL  EUROPE 

SCALE  OF   MiLt% 


—  — Uounilarifs  bi-foro  the  World  War 
^^^  New  Boundarloa 
■■■•  Uuundariol  In  dliput« 


CI.IMATK   AND    DRAINACJE   OF    EUROPE 


183 


\ 


\  /y 


Fig.  308.     Prevailing  winds  of  Europe 


Lliilo  ralu 

U(M>7  ralai 


Fig.  309.     Rainfall  of  Europe 


The  rainfall  in  the  west,  and  especially 
on  the  western  mountain  slopes,  is  heavy. 
Eastern  Europe,  being  farthest  from  the 
ocean,  has  less  rain  than  any  other  part 
of  the  continent. 

The  rainfall  in  the  Alps  and  in  the 
Scandinavian  mountains  is  heavy  dur- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  year.  As  is  usual 
in  high  mountains,  some  of  the  moisture 
falls  as  snow.  In  the  higher  mountain 
valleys  the  snow  packs  into  ice  and  forms 
glaciers  (Figs.  303,  305). 

197.  Drainage. — On  account  of  the 
heavy  rainfall  in  the  Alps,  large  rivers 
flow  from  these  mountains  in  every  direc- 
tion. Not  all  these  rivers  are  long,  but 
their  lower  courses  are  navigable  and  are 
important  trade  routes  for  the  countries 
through  \\hich  they  flow.  The  two  most 
important  are  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube 
(Fig.  306). 

On  the  map  trace  the  course  of  the 
Volga,  the  longest  river  in  Europe.  No- 
tice the  other  rivers  flowing  across  the 
great  plain.  Many  of  the  European 
rivers  have  been  deepened  and  cleared  of 
rocks  to  make  them  navigable.  The 
more    important    rivers    have    been    con- 


nected by  canals,  and  much  ol  the  com- 
merce of  central  Europe  is  carried  on  by 
water. 

Review  of    Sections    193   to   197. — i.   Which 

continent  is  snKilicr  than  Europe  \  2.  What  name 
is  sometimes  given  to  the  land  mass  of  Europe 
and  Asia  \ 

3.  What  parts  of  Europe  are  liordered  by 
water.?  4.  Where  are  the  land  lioundaries  .^ 
5.  How  docs  the  coast  line  differ  from  that  of 
other  continents  \ 

6.  In  what  part  of  Europe  are  the  greatest 
mountain  ranges  .?  Name  and  locate  them.  7.  In 
what  other  parts  of  Europe  are  there  mountains  .? 
8.  Where  is  the  great  lowland  of  Europe  ? 

9.  Why  is  the  temperature  of  western  Europe 
so  mild  .''  10.  Which  parts  of  the  continent  have 
the  heaviest  rainfall  .' 

II.  In  what  part  of  Europe  do  several  large 
rivers  rise  i"  i  2.  How  have  many  of  the  European 
rivers  been  made  navigable? 

198.  People  and  Industries. — Europe 
is  only  a  little  larger  than  the  United 
States  and  Alaska,  but  it  has  four  times 
as  large  a  population.  It  is  divided  into 
many  countries,  each  with  its  own  laws 
and  generally  with  a  language  of  its  own. 
Long  ago,  when  our  country  was  first 
settled,  most  of  the  explorers  and  settlers 
came  from  Great  Britain,  the  Nether- 
lands,  France,   and   Spain.     Later  many 


l84 


EUROPE 


settlers  came  from  Germany,  Norway, 
Italy,  Russia,  and  other  countries.  On 
the  map  (Fig.  306)  find  the  eight  coun- 
tries above  named. 

Even  at  the  present  time  many  people 
every  year  leave  Europe  and  come  to  our 
country  to  live.  When  they  land  here, 
few  of  them  know  our  language,  but  they 
soon  learn  to  speak  it.  Their  children 
go  to  our  schools,  and  most  of  them  be- 
come useful  citizens  and  good  Americans. 

There  are  so  many  people  in  Europe 
that  they  are  not  able  to  raise  on  that 
continent  all  of  the  food  that  they  need 
or  all  of  the  necessary  raw  materials  for 
their  clothing.  Most  of  the  European 
countries  must  buy  both  food  and  raw 
materials  from  other  lands,  and  must 
manufacture  many  things  to  sell  in  ex- 
change. Manufacturing  and  commerce, 
as  well  as  agriculture,  grazing,  and  fishing, 
are  ver\^  important  industries  in  Europe. 

Large  crops  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley 
are  raised,  and  are  used  in  making  bread. 
Potatoes  and  other  vegetables  are  raised 
in  large  quantities,  and  in  southern  Eu- 
rope corn  and  such  fruits  as  grapes, 
oranges,  olives,  and  figs  are  grown.  Flax 
is  raised  for  the  fiber  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linen,  and  in  southern  Europe 
many  silkworms  for  the  raw  material  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods. 

Among  the  mountains  and  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  are  extensive  pastures  for 
cattle  and  sheep.  The  flesh  of  these 
animals  is  used  as  food,  their  hides  for 
leather,  the  wool  for  the  manufacture  of 
clothing,  and  much  of  the  milk  for  making 
butter  and  cheese.  Large  quantities  of 
fish  are  caught  in  the  shallow  waters  of 
the  North  Sea  and  along  the  coasts  of 
France,  Great  Hrir;iin,  and  Norway. 

Besides  the  ni;nuifactures  of  food   and 


clothing,  there  are  many  other  manu- 
facturing industries.  These  include  the 
making  of  such  diff^erent  things  as  great 
ships,  fine  machinery,  and  artistic  jewelry. 

In  addition  to  canals  and  navigable 
rivers  (Sec.  197),  Europe  has  many  rail- 
roads. Nearly  a  third  of  all  the  railroad 
track  in  the  world  is  in  this  continent. 
Most  of  the  great  ocean  steamships  in 
the  w^orld  belong  to  Europeans. 

199.  The  World  War. — In  August, 
1914,  a  great  war  began  in  Europe — the 
greatest  war  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Most  of  the  European  nations  took  part 
in  it,  and  finally  our  own  country  also. 
This  war  came  to  a  close  in  November, 
1918,  although  treaties  of  peace  were  not 
signed  until  much  later. 

During  the  war  millions  of  people  were 
killed  or  crippled.  Hundreds  of  villages 
and  many  large  cities  were  wholly  or 
partly  destroyed.  Forests  and  farm  lands 
were  ruined.  Mines  and  factories  were 
wrecked.  For  a  long  time  after  the  war 
there  was  a  shortage  of  food,  clothing, 
and  machinery,  both  in  Europe  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

Figure  307,  with  the  two  maps  just 
before  it,  shows  clearly  the  European 
changes  in  territory  resulting  from  the 
World  War. 

Review  of  Sections  198  and  199. — i.  How 
does  the  population  of  Europe  compare  with  that 
of  our  country  ?  2.  From  what  parts  of  Europe 
did  men  come  to  settle  our  country  ? 

3.  What  two  things  do  most  European  coun- 
tries have  to  buy  from  other  lands  ?  4.  What  do 
they  sell  in  exchange?  5.  What  are  the  impor- 
tant industries  of  Europe  ? 

6.  Name  some  of  the  crops  that  are  raised. 
7.  What  use  is  made  of  flax  fiher?  8.  What 
animals  are  raised  for  food  ?  9.  Where  are  the 
fishing  grounds  ? 

10.  I  low  many  years  did  the  World  War  last  ? 
1 1.    What  were  some  of  its  results  ? 


GREAT   BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND 


i8S 


GREAT   BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 

200.  Position  and  Surface. — West  of 
the  mainland  of  Europe,  and  separated 
from  it  by  the  North  Sea,  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  and  the  English  Channel,  are 
two  large  islands.  The  larger  island  is 
Great  Britain,  the  government  of  which 
controls  Ulster  in  northeastern  Ireland. 
The  rest  of  Ireland  was  in  1922  organized 
as  the  Irish  Free  State.  Great  Britain 
is  divided  into  England,  Wales,  and 
Scotland.  England  is  the  largest  of  these 
divisions  and  has  the  most  people. 

Neither  of  the  islands  has  high  moun- 
tains and  there  are  only  a  few  prominent 
peaks.  The  chief  highland  areas  are  in 
the  northern  and  western  parts  of  Great 
Britain. 

There  is  a  small  lowland  in  central 
Scotland,  and  there  are  larger  lowlands 
in  central  and  southeastern  England  and 
in  the  interior  of  Ireland  (Fig.  310). 

201.  Great  Britain:  Agriculture  and 
Fishing. — Northern      Scotland     is    rough 


and  barren.  Swept  by  the  winds  from 
the  Atlantic,  it  has  a  heavy  rainfall  and 
a  cool  temperature.  Although  the  soil 
is  thin,  there  is  usually  an  abundant 
growth  of  grass,  and  in  most  of  this 
region  grazing  and  dairying  are  the  only 
industries  of  importance.  The  Scotch 
Highlanders  tend  many  herds  of  cattle  and 
flocks  of  sheep  ;  and  the  chief  products 
of  the  country  are  meat,  milk,  butter, 
hides,  and  wool. 

In  southern  Scotland,  northern  and 
western  England,  and  Wales,  the  high- 
lands are  less  rugged.  In  these  regions 
also  grazing  and  dairying  are  important 
industries,  but,  as  we  shall  see  later,  min- 
ing and  manufacturing  are  of  even  greater 
importance. 

In  the  lowlands  of  Great  Britain,  espe- 
cially in  central  and  southeastern  England, 
the  soil  is  good,  and  large  crops  are  raised. 
The  chief  products  are  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
hay,  and  vegetables.  The  rolling  hills,  or 
"  downs,"  of  southern  England  furnish 
pasture  for  large  Hocks  of  sheep. 


1 86 


EUROPE 


i?-^ -^- ,i&syaS^- 


Fig.  311.     A  fishing  village  in  Scotland,  on  the 
North  Sea 


Along  the  coast  of  Great  Britain  are 
villages  of  fishermen  (Fig.  311).  Large 
numbers  of  fish  are  caught  in  the  shallow 
waters  of  the  North  Sea  and  along  the 
northern  and  western  coasts. 

The  agricultural,  grazing,  and  fishing 
industries  of  Great  Britain  do  not  furnish 
enough  food  for  the  people,  and  great 
quantities  are  imported  from  other  parts 
of  the  world,  (iireat  Britain  is  a  little 
larger  than  our  state  of  Texas,  yet  it  con- 
tains nearly  half  as  many  people  as  the 
United  States.  This  is  a 
very  large  population  for 
so  small  a  country,  and 
great  industries  have  been 
built  up  to  give  the  people 
employment.  What  are 
these  industries  ? 

202.  Great  Britain  :  Min- 
ing, Manufacture,  and  Com- 
merce.— The  most  im|)or- 
tant  industry  of  Great 
Britain  is  manufacturing. 
Hut  this  industry  would 
not  li.ivc  become  impor- 
tant without  the  many 
large  deposits  of  coal  that 
arc  found   in  several  |)arts 


of  the  country.  Enough  coal  is  mined 
(Fig.  312)  to  furnish  all  the  necessary 
heat  and  power  for  homes  and  factories, 
and  to  provide  an  abundance  for  ex- 
port. 

Near  several  of  the  deposits  of  coal  there 
are  rich  beds  of  iron  ore.  The  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  steel  is  the  chief  industry 
of  many  cities,  large  and  small,  which 
have  grown  up  near  these  deposits. 

Among  the  largest  of  the  iron  and  steel 
manufacturing  centers  are  Birviingham 
in  England  and  Glasgow  in  Scotland. 
Glasgow  is  a  center  for  the  building  of 
steel  ships.  Sheffield  is  famous  for  its 
manufactures  of  steel,  especially  for  its 
knives  and  other  cutlery. 

The  largest  of  the  manufacturing  indus- 
tries in  Great  Britain  is  the  making  of 
cotton  goods.  All  the  cotton  used  comes 
from  other  countries,  most  of  it  from  the 
United  States.  Manchester  is  the  center 
of  the  industry.  This  i«  partly  because 
the  air  in  western  England  is  always  moist. 
Moist  air  is  necessary  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  finer  grades  of  cotton  goods. 


KiH-  J 12.      Entrance  to  an  English  coal  nunc 


GREAT   BRIIAIN   AND    IRELAND 


187 


in  east  central  Eng- 
land, in  the  city  of 
Leeds  and  in  the  towns 
near  it.  Some  of  the 
cities  of  Scotland  also 
are  engaged  in  this  in- 
dustry. So  much  wool 
is  needed  that  the 
sheep  of  Great  Britain 
furnish  only  one  fourth 
of  the  amount.  The 
other  three  fourths  are 
imported  from  Aus- 
tralia, Argentina,  and 
other  countries. 

Great  Britain  has  be- 
come a  great  commer- 
cial nation.  Its  ships 
sail  every  sea  and  reach 
For  many  years  all  the  cotton  was  every  important  port  of  the  world.  The 
first  landed  at  Liverpool,  a  large  port  and  welfare  of  the  British  people  is  depend- 
manufacturing  city  on  the  west  coast  ent  upon  the  safety  of  their  commerce, 
of  England.  From  there  it  was  sent  to  and  a  large  navy  is  kept  to  protect  their 
Manchester  and  to  other  cotton-manufac-  ships  and  their  foreign  possessions. 
turing  cities  by  rail.  There  is  now  a  The  chief  seaports  of  Great  Britain  are 
ship  canal  between  Liverpool  and  Man-  London,  Liverpool,  and  (JIasgow.  Lon- 
chester,  and  many  of  the  cotton  ships  don  is  on  the  Thames  River,  about  50 
go  directly  to  the  Manchester  docks,  miles  from  the  sea,  but  the  river  has  been 
Woolen    manufactures   are    carried    on     dredged  and  large  ships  are  able  to  reach 


1 
1 
1 

• 

Ijm    Tf^:^ 

1 

" 

Fig.  313.     Making  steel  street  cars,  England 

Unloading  steamships  at  the  new  docks  in  Liverpool 


a 
c 


CQ 


c 
o 


3 


(I. 


i8S 


GREAT   HRITAIN   AND   IRELAND 


189 


its  docks.  It  is  the  capital  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  of  the  British  Emjiire.  and  is  the 
largest  city  in  tlie  OKI  World  (Eig.  315). 

203.  The  British  Empire. — Great  Brit- 
ain has  always  been  interested  in  the  ex- 
ploration and  settlement  of  new  lands, 
and  many  of  these  lands  it  still  owns. 
It  has  also  gained  control  of  some  parts 
of  the  older  countries  of  the  world.  Its 
possessions  include  Canada,  Australia, 
India,  and  several  other  regions  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  South  America.  It  also  owns 
many  islands.  All  these  possessions,  with 
the  mother  country,  make  the  British 
Empire  one  of  the  largest  and  most  power- 
ful empires  of  the  world. 

The  king  of  Great  Britain  has  very  little 
power.  The  government  is  controlled  by 
those  members  of  Parliament  who  are 
elected  by  the  people. 

204.  Ireland. — Ulster,  which  is  still  un- 
der British  control,  is  the  best  agricultural 
region  in  Ireland  and  raises  most  of  the 
flax  from  which  Irish  linen  and  laces  are 
made.  For  centuries  these  products 
were  manufactured  in  the  homes  of 
the  people.  Most  of  the  linen,  however, 
is  now  made  in  factories.  Belfast  is  the 
center  of  the  industry  (Fig.  316).  Find 
it  on  the  map  (Fig.  306).  This  city  is 
also  engaged  in  shipbuilding. 

The  Irish  Free 
State  is  largely  a 
grazing  region  but 
with  some  farm 
lands.  Under  the 
new  government  the 
people  hope  to  im- 
prove their  indus- 
tries, especially  agri- 
culture. 

Dubliyi,  like  Bel- 
fast, is  a  shipbuilding 


center.  Both  cities  get  most  of  their 
iron  and  coal  from  Great  Britain,  as 
Ireland  has  little  coal  and  few  forests. 
For  fuel  the  country  people  use  peat 
which  they  dig  out  of  swamps.  It  con- 
sists of  a  mass  of  plant  roots  and  other 
vegetable  matter  that  has  been  kept  from 
decay  by  the  water. 

Review  of  Sections  200  to  204. — i.  By  what 
bodies  of  water  are  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
separated  from  the  mainland  of  Europe? 
2.  What  sea  lies  between  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  ?  3.  Into  what  three  parts  is  Great 
Britain    divided  .^ 

4.  Where  are  the  highlands  of  Great  Britain  ? 
5.  Why  are  the  highlands  of  Scotland  so  cool  dur- 
ing the  summer  ?  6.  What  are  the  leading  in- 
dustries of  northern  Scotland?  7.  In  what  other 
parts  of  Great  Britain  is  there  much  grazing  ? 

8.  Where  are  the  chief  agricultural  regions  of 
Great  Britain  ?  9.  What  are  the  leading  crops  ? 
10.    Why  must  Great  Britain  import  food  ? 

II.  What  is  the  leading  industry  in  Great 
Britain?  12.  What  mineral  deposits  have  made 
this  industry  possible?  13.  Where  are  iron  and 
steel  goods  made?  14.  For  what  industry  is 
Glasgow  noted?  Sheffield?  15.  What  is  the 
largest  manufacturing  industry  of  (ireat  Britain  ? 

16.  Where   does   the   raw   material   come  from? 

17.  What  city  is  the  center  of  this  industry? 
Why?  18.  What  port  once  handled  all  the  raw 
material  ?  Why  does  it  not  do  so  now  ? 
19.  Where  are  woolen  goods  manufactured  in 
Great  Britain  ?  20.  Where  does  the  wool  come 
from  ? 

21.  Why  does  Great  Britain  keep  a  large  navy  ? 
22.    What  cities  arethechief  seaports  ?     23.    Name 

souurhing  for  which 
London  is  famous. 
24.  What  is  the  British 
Empire  ? 

25.  Where  is  Ulster  ? 
for  what  industry  is  it 
famous  ?  26.  What  city 
is  the  center  of  linen 
manufacture  ?  27.  What 
are  the  chief  industries 
of  the  Irish  Free  State? 

28.  What  cities  are  en- 
gaged    in    shipbuilding? 

29.  What  fuel  is  used  in 
the  country  districts  ? 


I  go 


EUROPE 


Fig.  317.     Cultivated  fields  in  southeastern  Gi 


GERMANY 

205.  Position  and  Size. — Germany 
was  for  many  years  an  empire,  but 
after  its  defeat  in  the  World  War  it  be- 
came a  republic.  The  country  is  smaller 
than  it  was  before  the  war  (Figs.  306 
and  307)  ;  but  still  it  is  larger  than  the 
six  New  England  States  and  the  three 
Middle  Atlantic  States  combined.  It  is 
separated  into  two  parts  by  Poland.  It 
has  land  boundaries  on  the  east,  south, 
and  west,  but  most  of  its  northern  bound- 
ary is  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  North 
and  Baltic  seas. 

Northern  Germany  and  northeastern 
Germany  are  low  plains.  Southern  Ger- 
many is  high  and  includes  a  shkiII  part  of 
the  northern  Alps.  The  central  part  is 
a  region  of  hills  and  low,  forest-covered 
mountains.  The  general  slope  of  the 
hind    is    from    the   south    to   tlir  iiortii. 

206.  Agriculture  and  Grazing.  On  tin' 
northern  jjlain  the  summers  are  warm 
and  the  winds  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
bring  enough    rain    to   make    it    possible 


to  raise  large  crops.  The 
higher  and  rougher  country 
farther  south  also  has  much 
good  farming  land  (Fig. 
317).  Along  some  of  the 
rivers  the  slopes  have  been 
built  into  terraces. 

The  leading  crops  are 
sugar  beets,  potatoes,  rye. 
oats,  barley,  and  wheat. 
Potatoes  and  the  "  black 
bread  "  made  from  rye  and 
barley  are  the  chief  food  of 
the  poorer  people.  Many 
grapes  are  grown  on  the 
terraced  slopes  of  the  upper 
Rhine  valley.  Hops  are 
also  grown  in  abundance. 

Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  hogs  are 
raised,  especially  on  the  uplands  and 
wherever  the  soil  is  too  poor  for  cultiva- 
tion. Some  fishing  is  carried  on  along 
the  coast,  but  the  industry  is  not  so 
important  as  in  Great  Britain.  Because 
of  its  large  population  Germany  must 
import  part  of  its  food  supply. 

207.  Forests  and  Mines. — The  forests 
of  Germany  cover  about  one  fourth  of 
its  surface  and  are  carefully  tended  and 
protected.  Only  large  trees  or  poor  ones 
are  cut  down,  and  when  this  is  done 
great  care  is  taken  not  to  injure  those 
that  are  left.  Even  the  small  twigs  and 
branches  are  picked  up  to  be  used  for 
fuel,  and  to  jirevent  the  starting  of  forest 
fires. 

Coal  and  iron  are  found  in  several 
parts  of  Germany,  and  there  are  valuable 
(lei)osits  of  silver,  lead,  zinc,  copper,  and 
salt. 

208.  Manufacturing. — Most  of  the 
grain  cro|)s  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  Hour,  and  a  good  flour  is  also  made 


GERMANY 


191 


from  potatoes.  Grapes  are  used  in  ttu' 
manufacture  of  wine,  and  hops  in  the 
manufacture  of  beer.  Germany  makes 
more  beet  sugar  than  any  other  country 
of  the  world. 

Other  manufactures  in  Germany  include 
the  making  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen 
goods  and  the  printing  ot  books.  Essen  is 
the  center  of  a  great  steel-manufacturing 
industry. 

209.  Commerce  and  Cities. — Ger- 
many, like  Great  Britain,  must  have 
food  for  its  people,  raw  materials  for  its 
factories,  and  markets  for  its  manufac- 
tures. In  1914  it  was  a  great  commercial 
nation.  It  imported  grain,  meat,  cotton, 
and  wool,  and  exported  sugar,  wine, 
medicines,  dye  stuffs,  and  many  other 
kinds  of  manufactured  goods.  At  the 
close  of  the  World  War,  Germany  was 
left  with  but  few  ships  and  little  of  its 
foreign  trade. 

Hamburg  and  Bremen  near  the  North 
Sea,  and  Stettin  on  the  Baltic,  are  seaports 
and  shipbuilding  centers.  Ports  on  the 
Baltic  can  be  reached  from  the  North 
Sea  through  a  ship  canal  which  cuts 
across  a  narrow  part  of  Germany  south 
of  Denmark. 

Several  large  rivers  rise  in  the  southern 
mountains  and  flow  across  central  and 
northern  Germany  to  the  Baltic  and 
North  seas.  The  Danube,  however,  flows 
east  to  the  Black  Sea.  These  rivers  are 
navigable  for  long  distances,  and  are 
connected  by  canals.  Many  boats  make 
use  of  this  network  of  waterways,  espe- 
cially those  carrving  freight.  In  addition 
Germany  has  large  railroad  systems. 

Berlin  is  the  capital  and  chief  railroad 
center.  Leipzig  is  a  fur  market  and  book 
publishing  center.  Dresden  and  Mtinich 
are    famous    for    their    picture    galleries ; 


and  Cologne  for  its  cathedral  and  the 
manufacture  of  perfumery. 

Review    of    Sections    205    to    209. — i.   What 

ch;inp;c  ot"  goviTiiniciU  in  (icnnany  followed  the 
World  War  .^  2.  Descrilie  the  size  and  bound- 
aries of  Germany.  3.  Describe  the  surface  of  the 
country. 

4.  Where  are  the  agricultural  regions  ] 
5.  What  arc  the  important  crops  \  6.  How 
has  the  upper  Rhine  valley  been  fitted  for  agri- 
culture .f'  7.  What  is  grown  there  ?  8.  Where 
are  the  grazing  regions .''  9.  Why  must  Ger- 
many import  food  .' 

to.  How  are  the  forests  of  Germany  cared 
for  .^  n.  What  mineral  deposits  are  found  in 
Germany  .? 

12.  What  crops  arc  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  flour?  13.  How  does  Germany  rank  in  the 
manufacture  of  beet  sugar.?  14.  What  are  some 
of  the  other  important  manufactures  .? 

15.  What  was  {he  effect  of  the  World  War 
on  the  commerce  of  Germany.?  16.  What  three 
cities  are  important  seaports  and  shipbuilding 
centers.?  17.  How  may  Baltic  ports  be  reached 
from  the  North  Sea.?  18.  What  large  rivers 
rise  in  the  southern  mountains  (Fig.  306)  ? 
19.  How  have  the  rivers  been  made  useful 
in  commerce.?  20.  Where  is  Berlin?  21.  For 
what  is  Leipzig  noted  .?     Dresden  .?     Cologne  .? 


193 


EUROPE 


Fig.  319.     Stacks  of  flax  in  Belgium.     The  stalk  of  the 
plant  contains  the  fiber  used  in  making  linen 


Fig.  321.     Canal  in  a  Dutch  city.     Narrow  streets  border 
the  canal,  but  most  of  the  transportation  is  by  water 


OTHER  COUNTRIES  ON  THE  NORTH 
AND  BALTIC  SEAS 

210.  Belgium. — Belgium  is  about  as 
large  as  Maryland,  but  has  five  or  six 
times  as  many  people.  The  southeastern 
part  is  hilly,  and  has  well-kept  forests 
and  mines  of  coal,  zinc,  iron,  and  lead. 
Northern  Belgium  is  a  lowland.  Part  of 
it  is  so  low  that  high  banks,  called  dikes, 
have  been  built  to  keep  out  the  sea. 

Belgium  is  a  country  of  small  farms, 
especially  in  the  northern  lowlands.  The 
chief  crops  are  grain,  flax,  hops,  sugar 
beets,  and  vegetables.  Sheep  and  horses 
are  raised  among  the  southeastern  hills. 


Fig.  320.     Shipping  011  the-  Scheldt  River  at  Aiitwrrp 


On  account  of  the  coal  and  iron  mines, 
southern  Belgium  has  become  one  of  the 
busiest  iron-manufacturing  regions  in 
Europe.  Belgium  is  famous  also  for  its 
linens,  laces,  carpets,  and  woolen  and 
cotton  cloths.  Much  of  the  flax  used 
in  the  linen  and  lace  is  home  grown,  but 
all  the  cotton  and  most  of  the  wool  are 
imported.  The  Belgians  have  long  been 
leaders  in  the  making  of  woolen  goods. 

Brussels,  the  capital  and  largest  city, 
manufactures  lace,  linen,  and  carpets. 
Antzverp  is  the  chief  seaport  and  one  of 
the  great  ports  of  Europe  (Fig.  320). 
Lii'ge  manufactures  woolen  and  steel  goods. 

Belgium  has  a  large  colony  in  the  Kongo 
district  of  Africa. 

211.  The  Netherlands. — The  name 
Netherlands  means  lowlands  and  is  there- 
fore a  good  n;niu'  for  the  low  country  north 
of  Belgium  aiulwest  of  (icrmany  (Pig.  306). 
1  his  country  is  often  called  Holland,  which 
is  really  the  name  of  one  of  its  provinces. 
The  peoi)ic-  arc  t  illnl  1  iolhiiulers  or  Dutch. 
y\  j)art  nf  the  country  is  in  the  Rhine  delta, 
;in(l  niiuh  ol  it  lies  below  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Here,  as  in  northern  Belgium,  dikes 
have  been  built  tn  kt-ej)  the  sea  and  rivers 
from  ll( Killing  the  l.md. 


BELGHM,    rilK   NKTIIKRLANDS 


193 


Fig.  322.     Shipping  in  the  harbor  of  Rotterdam 


Fig.  323.  An  Amsterdam  diamond  cutter 


The  water  that  gathers  on  the  lowlands 
behind  the  dikes  is  pumped  out  by  wind- 
mills into  the  canals  which  cross  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  country.  The  people 
use  the  canals  instead  of  roads,  traveling 
and  carrying  their  produce  to  market 
in  boats.  In  some  of  the  cities  there  are 
canals  through  the  principal  streets  (Fig. 
321).  In  the  winter  the  canals  freeze 
over  and  are  used  for  skating  and  sleigh- 
ing. 

212.  Industries  of  the  Netherlands. — 
The  leading  industries  are  agriculture  and 
dairying.  The  small  farms  are  so  care- 
fully tended  that  they  look  like  well-kept 
gardens.  The  cattle  also  are  given  the 
best  of  care.  Butter  and  cheese  are 
made  in  large  quantities  and  sent  to 
other  countries  for  sale.  The  crops  are 
like  those  of  Belgium.  The  Dutch 
farmers  grow  also  many  flowers  and 
Hower  bulbs  for  foreign  markets. 

The  Dutch  have  large  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies  (islands  near  Asia),  small 
islands  in  the  West  Indies,  and  part  of 
Guiana  in  South  America.  The  city  of 
New  York  was  founded  and  the  Hudson 
Valley  was  explored  and  settled  by  the 
Dutch.     Later    this    region    became    an 


English  colony  and  finally  a  part  of  the 
United  States. 

The  capital  of  the  Netherlands  is  the 
Hague.  Rotterdam  is  one  of  the  chief 
seaports  of  Europe  (Fig.  322).  The  larg- 
est city  of  the  Netherlands  is  Amsterdam. 
Here  live  and  work  the  most  skillful 
diamond  cutters  in  the  world.  When 
found,  most  diamonds  look  like  small 
round  pebbles.  Cut  diamonds  glisten 
brilliantly  as  the  light  strikes  them. 
Stones  from  many  diamond  mines  are 
sent  to  Amsterdam  to  be  cut  (Fig.  323). 

Review   of   Sections   210   to   212. — i.    Which 

part  of  the  Belgium  country  is  hilly.''  2.  Where 
is  the  lowland }  3.  How  are  lands  below  sea 
level  protected  from  the  sea  ?  4.  What  are  the 
chief  industries  ?     5.    Where  is  each  carried  on  ? 

6.  What  are  the  most  important  manufactures  ? 

7.  Where      is      the      raw      material      obtained  .? 

8.  Name  the  chief  cities  of  Belgium. 

9.    What  does  the  name  Netherlands   mean  ? 

10.  Why    are    the    people     called     Hollanders } 

11.  What  river  delta  forms  a  part  of  this 
country.'  Of  what  use  are  dikes?  12.  How 
are  the  lowlands  drained  .'  13.  Of  what  use 
are  the  canals  ? 

14.  What  are  the  leading  industries  of  the 
Netherlands?  15.  What  products  are  ex- 
ported ?  16.  What  city  is  the  capital  ? 
17.  Which  city  is  the  largest?  18.  Which  is 
the  chief  port  ? 


■94 


EUROPE 


Fi-i. 


' ) .     Young  women  at  work  decorating  beautiful  Danish 
pottery,  Copenhagen 


214.  Norway  and  Sweden. — Nor- 
way and  Sweden  are  two  independ- 
ent kingdoms  occupying  the  Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula.  This  is  the 
largest  peninsula  of  Europe.  It  is 
more  than  twice  as  large  as  Great 
Britain,  although  Great  Britain  has 
nearly  six  times  as  many  people  as 
Norway  and  Sweden  combined. 

Much  of  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula is  mountainous.  Farming  is 
possible  only  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts..  The  chief  crops  are 
hay  and  the  grains  and  vegetables 
that  will  grow  in  cool  countries. 
213.  Denmark. — Denmark  occupies  a  In  the  highlands  sheep,  cattle,  and  goats 
small  peninsula  between  the  North  and  are  raised.  Much  butter  and  cheese  are 
Baltic  seas,  and  the  islands  east  of  the  made.  Many  of  the  mountain  slopes 
peninsula  (Fig.  306).  It  is  a  lowland,  are  covered  with  forests,  and  both  Norway 
larger  than  the  Netherlands,  but  has  only  and  Sweden  produce  lumber,  wood  pulp, 
half  as  many  people.  and  paper  for  export  (Fig.  325). 

Much  of  the  soil  of  Denmark  is  sandy  Norway  stretches  along  the  western 
or  swami)y,  and  the  climate  is  too  cool  side  and  around  the  northern  end  of  the 
for  many  crops.  Oats,  barley,  rye,  and  peninsula.  Long  Hords,  or  narrow  arms 
vegetables  are  grown  ;  but  the  leading  of  the  sea  bordered  by  steep  rocky  walls 
mdustries  are  dairying  and  the  raising  (Fig.  326),  reach  inland  among  the  moun- 
of  poultry,  sheep,  horses,  and  hogs,  tains.  It  is  easier  for  the  people  living 
Butter  is  made  in  large  quantities,  and  near  these  fiords  to  go  from  place  to  place 
much  of  it  is  sent  to  London  and  to  other  by  sea,  than  to  cross  the  rugged  land, 
cities  of  Great  Britain.  Part  of  the  food 
given  to  the  cattle  in  Denmark  and  other 
west  European  countries  is  cottonseed 
meal  from  the  United  States. 

There  is  some  manufacturing,  including 
the  making  of  leather  and  line  decorated 
pottery  (Fig.  324). 

The  capital,  Copenhagen,  is  the  largest 
city  and  chief  port. 

The  Danish  ])ossessions  include  (Ireen- 
land  fSec.  176)  and  the  Faroe  Ul.iiids  iu 
the  north  Atlantic.  Between  thein  is 
Iceland,  with  a  government  of  its  own, 
under  the  Danish  king. 


1 

1 


Fir.  325.     Log.s  to  lie  used  in  paper  iiuiUinn,  Norway 


DENMARK,  NORWAY,  SWEDEN 


195 


Fig.  326.     A  steamer  in  one  of  the  Norwegian  fiords 


For  this  reason  the  Scandinavians  have 
always  been  devoted  to  a  V\ic  on  the  sea. 
A  thousand  years  ago  the  Norsemen,  as 
they  were  called,  were  the  most  famous 
and  daring  sailors  and  sea  rovers  in  the 
world.  At  the  present  time  many  of 
the  Scandinavians  are  fishermen,  and 
fish  supply  a  large  part  of  their  food. 
Many  are  sailors,  both  on  their  own 
ships  and  on  those  of  other  nations. 
Vessels  owned  and  manned  by  Scandina- 
vians are  engaged  in  the  business  of 
carrying  goods  to  and  from  all  the  great 
ports  of  the  world. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  ocean  trips  in 
the  world  is  in  and  out  among  the  fiords 
of  Norway  (Fig.  326)  and  along  its  coast. 
At  the  heads  of  many  of  the  northern 
fiords  great  glaciers  may  be  seen,  al- 
though they  are  not  so  large  as  those  in 
the  fiords  of  Alaska.  The  North  Cape 
is  so  far  north  that  for  several  weeks  dur- 
ing the  summer  the  sun  does  not  set 
there  even  at  midniglit.  For  this  reason 
the   northern    part   of  Norway   is   called 


the   "  land  of   the   midnight 
sun." 

In  northern  Sweden  there 
are  large  forests  and  valu- 
able deposits  of  iron  ore. 
The  steel  made  from  this  ore 
has  long  been  famous  for  its 
excellent  cpiality.  In  south- 
ern Sweden  agriculture  is 
the  leading  industry  and  the 
farms  are  well  cultivated. 
There  is  no  coal  in  Norway 
and  Sweden,  but  the  power 
furnished  by  the  mountain 
streams  is  used,  and  much 
manufacturing  is  done. 

215.  Cities. — Most  of  the 
people  live  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  peninsula,  and  all  of  the 
large  cities  are  there.  Stockholm  is  the 
capital  and  largest  city  of  Sweden. 
Gotcborg  is  the  most  important  port. 
Christiania  is  the  capital  and  largest 
city  of  Norway.  Bergen  is  its  chief  port 
and  the  headquarters  of  a  large  fishing 
fleet. 

Review  of  Sections  213  to  215.— i.  Where  is 

Denmark  ?  2.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  and 
population  with  the  Netherlands?  3.  What  are 
the  industries?  4.  What  are  the  exports? 
5.  Where  is  one  export  sent  ?  6.  What  food  is  used 
for  the  cattle  ?  7.  Where  is  Copenhagen  ?  8. 
What  outlyinp;  possessions  has  Denmark  ? 

9.  In  what  peninsula  are  Norway  and  Sweden  ? 
10.  How  does  the  peninsula  compare  in  size  and 
population  with  Great  Britain  ?  11.  What  parts 
of  it  are  suitable  for  farming  ?  12.  What  crops  can 
be  grown?  13.  Where  are  the  grazing  regions? 
14.  What  part  of  the  peninsula  is  covered  with 
forests?  15.  Where  is  Norway?  16.  Describe 
its  coast.  17.  What  occupations  do  the  people 
follow  on  the  sea  ? 

18.  Where  is  the  North  Cape?  19.  Why  is 
it  interesting  to  visit  this  cape  in  midsummer? 

20.  Where  do  most  of  the  Scandinavian  people 
live?  21.  Where  is  Stockholm?  Goteborg  ? 
Christiania  ? 


196 


EUROi^E 


216.  Poland. — Poland  is 
made  up  of  lands  until 
recently  ruled  by  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Russia.  Its 
area  is  greater  than  that 
of  our  state  of  Colorado, 
and  its  population  is  many 
times  as  great.  In  the 
west  its  boundaries  are  so 
fixed  that  Poland  separates 
a  small  part  of  northeast- 
ern Germany  from  the  main 
body  of  that  country  (Fig.  306).  The 
eastern  boundary  was  established  by 
treaty  with  Russia  after  a  war  in  1920. 

Poland  is  mainly  an  agricultural  coun- 
try (Fig.  327)  ;  the  chief  crops  are  rye, 
oats,  wheat,  potatoes,  and  sugar  beets. 
Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  raised.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  country  includes 
rich  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  zinc,  and  salt. 
Among  the  manufactures  are  textiles, 
leather,  and  iron  and  steel  goods. 

The  Vistula  is  the  most  important  river 
highway.  On  its  banks  is  Warsaw,  the 
capital  and  chief  railroad  center  (Fig. 
328).  It  has  tanneries,  sugar  refineries, 
and  other  factories.    The  great  cotton  mills 


f 

*u^ 

-l 

-v^wj 

>»«»  -fimrtww-.  -'  ''TK«p^D» 

Fig.  327.     At  work  on  a  Polish  farm 


are  at  Loch.  Raw  cotton  used  there  is 
imported  from  the  United  States. 

Danzig,  an  independent  city  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Vistula,  is  the  chief  port 
for  trade  with  Poland. 

217.  Lithuania,  Latvia,  and  Esthonia. 
— ■  These  three  countries  border  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  area  of 
this  region  is  six  times  that  of  Belgium 
and  about  equal  to  that  of  our  state  of 
Washington.  The  entire  region  is  low  and 
flat  and  a  considerable  part  is  marshland. 
The  leading  industries  throughout  the 
district  are  farming,  lumbering,  and  fish- 
ing.    Riga  is  the  chief  port. 

Review  of  Sections  216  and  217. — i.  What 
counrry  does  Poland  divide  into 
two  parts  .-■  2.  What  is  the  chief 
industry  of  Poland  ?  3.  What 
crops  are  raised  .?  4.  What  min- 
erals arc  found  ?  5.  What  are  the 
leadinfi  manufactures  ?  6.  Why 
is  the  \'istula  River  important 
to  the  Polish  people.?  7.  What 
are  the  industries  of  Warsaw  ? 
8.  What  is  manufactured  at  Lodz 
and  where  does  the  raw  material 
come  from  ^  9.  Through  what 
independent  city  is  Polish  sea 
trade  carried  on  ? 

lo.  What  countries  horder  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Maltic  Sea  .? 
II.  What  are  the  leading  indus- 
tries?    12.    What  city  is  the  chief 


ift 


port  01  this  region  : 


FRANCE 


197 


FRANCE 

218.    Position  and  Surface. — The  Euro- 
pean country  nearest  to  Great  Britain  is 


the  silkworm.  This  Httle  caterpillar  is  fed 
on  the  leaves  ol  the  mulberry  tree  until  it 
is  old  enough  to  spin  its  cocoon. 

Cattle,    sheep,    and    horses    are    raised 


the  republic  of  France.     By  what  strait  in  large  numbers,  and  butter  and  cheese 

and  channel  are  these  countries  separated  are   exported.     Several   kinds  of    French 

(Fig.   306)  .?     From  these  waters   France  cheese  are  widely  known  for  their  delicate 

stretches  across  the  mainland  of  Europe  .flavors. 

to   the   Mediterranean    Sea.     The    south  220.    Forests  and  Mines. — The  French 

and  east   boundaries   are    formed    partly  tend  their  forests  with  great  care.     Trees 

by  mountain  ranges.  to    be    cut    down    are    carefully   chosen. 

The  central  plateau  west  of  the  river  Twigs  and   branches   are  not  allowed   to 

Rhone  is  the  only  large  highland  in  the  lie   on    the   ground.      Many   trees    have 

interior.     The  valley  between  the  plateau  been  planted   in  districts  where   the   soil 

and  the  Alps  is  drained  into  the    Medi-  is  too  poor  for  cultivation  or  for  pasture, 

terranean    Sea.     Nearly    all    the    rest   of  France  has  always  had  some  coal  and 


France  slopes  toward  the  west  and  north- 
west and  is  drained  by  several  large  rivers. 
219.    Agriculture. — As     France     has     a 
mild    climate    and    abundant    rain,    large 


iron,  but  in  the  territory  recovered  from 
Germany  after  the  World  War  (Fig.  307) 
there  is  much  more  of  both  these  impor- 
tant minerals.     Potash,  a  valuable  man- 


crops  are  easily  grown  on   the   lowlands     eral  fertilizer,  is  also  found  in  this  terri- 

and   in  the  valleys.     Wheat  is  the  chief     tory  near  the  river  Rhine. 

grain  raised,  but  oats, 

barley,    and    rye    also 

are    grown.      Potatoes 

and    sugar    beets    are 

produced      in      many 

parts   of    the   country 

(Fig.  329). 

In  the  cultivation  of 
wine  grapes  France 
leads  the  world.  The 
finest  vineyards  are 
in  the  Garonne  and 
Rhone  valleys  and  in 
the  upper  parts  of  the 
Seine, Saone, and  Rhine 
valleys.  Southern 
France  also  produces 
oranges  and  olives. 

One  of  the  principal 
industries  of  southern 
France  is   the   care  of 


A',  work  m  a  French  potato  licld 


198 


EUROPE 


221.  Manufacturing. — Of  all  the 
French  manufactures  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  textiles,  or  cloth 
and  other  woven  goods.  A  part  of 
the  linen,  silk,  and  wool  used  in 
them  are  produced  in  France,  but 
all  of  the  cotton  is  imported 

French  textiles  are  of  line  quality 
and  the  silks  are  especially  famous. 
Lyon,  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhone, 
is  the  center  of  the  silk  manufac- 
turing industry  (Fig.  330)  ;  and 
St.  Etie?ine,  near  Lyon,  makes  silk 
ribbons.  There  are  large  cotton  and 
woolen  mills  in  northeastern  France 
and    in    the    Rhine    Valley.      Other 

French  manufactures  include  iron  and  the  Garonne,  is  the  chief  port  for  the  ship- 
steel  goods,  wine,  sugar,  gloves,  shoes,  ment  of  wines.  Calais  is  the  French 
artistic  jewelry,  and  other  articles  prized  port  for  the  steamers  that  run  between 
for  their  superior  quality.  northeastern  France  and  Dover  in  south- 

222.  Commerce  and  Cities. — Among  the     ern  England. 

imports  of  France  are  coal,  cotton,  wool,  The  most  beautiful  city  of  France  and 
raw  silk,  and  meat,  wheat,  and  other  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world  is 
foods.  The  chief  exports  are  a  great  Paris  (Fig.  331).  It  is  the  capital  of 
variety  of  textiles,  fine  jewelry,  and  other  France  and  the  third  city  of  the  Old  World 
artistic  products,  and  much  wine.  in  population.      Its  avenues  are  broad  and 

Marseille  is  the  largest  seaport,  and  con-  handsome,  well  shaded,  and  brilliantly 
trols  the  trade  with  other  countries  on  lighted  at  night.  There  are  many  fine 
the    Mediterranean    Sea.     Bordeaux,    on     public  buildings  and  large  art  galleries  with 

famous  paintings  and  statues.  To  this 
city  many  students  of  music,  painting, 
and  architecture  go  to  study.  Paris  has 
a  variety  of  manufactures  and  carries 
on  an  extensive  commerce  through  its 
seaport,  Havre.  Small  luiats  come  up 
the  Seine  from  the  ocean  and  receive  or 
unload  their  cargoes  within  the  city  limits. 
Although  for  many  centuries  a  mon- 
archv,  France  has  now  been  for  some  time 
a  rcpublii  .  li  has  colonies  in  Asia, 
several  large  colonies  in  Africa,  one  in 
South  -America  (Sec.  192),  and  it  owns 
many   islands. 


4 
Fig.   331.      On 

-1 

L  of  tli(    firidgt  s  across  tin 

Seine  at  Paris 

FRANCE,  SPAIN,   PORTUGAL 


199 


Review  of  Sections  218  to  222. — i.  Where  is 
France?  2.  What  parts  of  its  boundary  are 
mountain  ranges?  3.  Into  what  waters  do  its 
rivers  flow  ? 

4.  Why  are  large  crops  easily  grown  in  France  ? 
;.  What  grains  are  raised  ?  6.  Where  is  grape 
culture  carried  on  ?  7.  Where  are  silkworms 
raised  ?  8.  Describe  this  industry.  9.  On  what 
are  the  worms  fed  ? 

10.  What  care  do  the  French  people  give  their 
forests  ? 

11.  What  are  the  leading  manufactures? 
12.  What  cities  are  the  leading  silk-manufacturing 
centers?  13.  Where  are  the  cotton  and  woolen 
mills  ? 

14.  What  are  the  chief  imports  ?  Exports  ? 
15.  What  cities  are  important  ports?  16.  On 
what  waters  are  they  located?  17.  Where  is 
Paris?  18.  For  what  is  the  city  noted  ?  19.  What 
is  the  present  government  of  France  ?  20.  What 
other  countries  have  this  form  of  government  ? 
II.  Where  are  the  French  colonies  ? 


SPAIN  AND   PORTUGAL 

223.  Surface. — The  two  countries  of 
the  Iberian  Peninsula  are  Spain  and 
Portugal  (Figs.  304,  306).  They  are 
independent  of  each  other,  but  are  alike 
in  climate  and  industries.  Spain  is  five 
and  one  half  times  as  large  as  its  smaller 


neighbor.  Much  of  the  penin- 
sula is  a  high  and  rugged 
plateau.  It  is  bordered  on  the 
north  by  the  Pyrenees  (Fig.  332). 
and  is  crossed  by  other  ranges. 

224.  Grazing  and  Agricul- 
ture.— The  plateau  is  so  high 
that  it  is  cool  in  spite  of  its 
southern  position,  and  the  winds 
that  reach  the  interior  bring  but 
little  rain.  Some  wheat  and 
other  grains  are  grown,  but 
much  of  the  plateau  is  unfit  foi 
agriculture.  The  raising  of 
cattle  and  sheep  is  the  leading 
industry. 

Along  parts  of  the  coast  and 
in  the  valleys  of  some  of  the  rivers  there 
are  small  lowlands  whose  climate  is  mild. 
These  are  the  chief  agricultural  districts. 
On  the  west  coast  during  the  winter 
the  west  winds  bring  enough  rain  for  the 
growth  of  crops.  In  the  east  it  is  neces- 
sary to  irrigate  the  fields. 

In  the  warm  valleys  and  lowlands, 
grapes,  olives,  oranges,  and  other  tropical 
fruits  are  raised.  Another  product  of 
southern  Spain  and  Portugal  is  cork, 
which  is  the  bark  of  a  kind  of  oak  tree 
(Fig.  333).  It  is  stripped  ofT  in  large 
sheets  and  used  in  making  corks  for 
bottles  and  in  filling  life  preservers. 


20O 


EUROPE 


225.  Mining,  Manufactures,  and  Com- 
merce.— There  are  large  deposits  of  im- 
portant minerals,  including  iron,  copper, 
lead,  zinc,  and  quicksilver.  There  is 
not  much  coal  in  either  Spain  or  Portugal, 
and  the  people  are  lacking  in  enterprise. 
For  these  reasons  most  of  the  ore  is  sent 
to  Great  Britain  and  Germany  for  smelt- 
ing and  manufacture. 

There  are  textile  mills  in  Barcelona  in 
northeastern  Spain,  but  in  most  parts  of 
the  peninsula  there  is  little  manufactur- 
ing. This  is  partly  because  of  the  small 
supply  of  coal.  As  there  are  few  impor- 
tant manufactures,  the  leading  exports 
are  ores,  cork,  truit,  and  wine.  Barcelona 
(Fig.  334)  and  Valencia  are  the  chief  ports 
of  Spain.  The  seaports  of  Portugal  are 
Oporto  (Fig.  335)  and  Lisbon,  the  capital. 

Madrid  is  the  capital  and  the  largest 
city  of  Spain.  It  is  near  the  center  of 
the  high  plateau  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
barren  country. 

226.  People  and  History.  —  Spain  and 
Portugal  were  at  one  time  among  the 
leading  nations  of  the  world.  They  led 
in  the  explonition  and  settlement  of  new 
countries  and  had  many  colonirs.  Ir 
was  a  Spanish  expedition  that  Columbus 


commanded  when  he  dis- 
covered the  New  World. 
It  was  also  by  expeditions 
from  Spain  and  Portugal 
that  South  America  and 
the  southern  part  of 
North  America  were  ex- 
plored and  settled.  Spain 
was  cruel  in  the  govern- 
ment of  its  colonies,  and 
finally  they  rebelled  and 
obtained  their  freedom. 
Portugal  also  lost  her 
great  American  colony, 
Brazil.  At  present  both  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal have  colonies  in  Africa. 


Fig.  335.     The  harbor  of  Oporto,  Portugal 


In  1910  the  people  of  Portugal  forced 
the  king  to  leave  the  country,  and  se.t 
up  a  republic.     Spain  is  a  monarchy. 

At  the  southern  end  of  Spain,  not 
far  from  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
is  the  famous  mountain  known  as  the 
Rock  of  Cjibraltar.  This  rock  is  owned 
by  Great  Britain.  Rooms  and  passage- 
ways have  been  cut  in  it,  and  great  camion 
placed  in  them,  making  a  powerful  for- 
tress. Thus  the  British  can  lontiol  the 
movement  of  sliijjs  between  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 


SPAIN,    PORTUGAL,   SWITZERLAND 


20I 


Review  of  Sections  223  to  226. — i.  Ih  whiili 
peninsula  ut  Luropc  arc  Spain  and  Portugal  ? 
2.  How  do  they  compare  in  size?  3.  Describe 
the  surface  of  the  peninsula. 

4.  W  hat  eftect  has  the  ele\  arion  of  the  penin- 
sula on  the  temperature?  5.  Compare  the  rain- 
fall of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  with  that  of  France. 
6.  What  industries  are  carried  on?  7.  Where 
is  irrigation  necessary  ?  S.  What  tree  grown  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  has  an  especially 
valuable  bark  ?  9.  What  minerals  are  found  ? 
10.  Where  is  the  ore  sent  for  manufacture  ? 

II.  Where  is  Barcelona?  iz.  What  industries 
are  carried  on  there?  13.  What  are  the  ex- 
ports of  Spain  ?  14.  What  cities  are  important 
ports?  15.  Where  are  they?  16.  Where  is  the 
capital  of  Spain  ? 

17.  \\  here  did  Spain  and  Portugal  at  one  time 
have  colonies  ?  18.  From  which  of  these  countries 
did  Columbus  sail  when  he  discovered  America  ? 
19.  What  has  become  of  the  colonies  that  Spain 
once  had  ?  20.  What  change  did  Portugal  make 
in  1910  in  the  form  of  government  ? 


teau  is  the  most  densely  settled  part  of 
the  country. 

228.  Climate. — Switzerhmd  is  cooler 
than  the  surrounding  countries  because 
of  its  greater  elevation.  The  west  winds 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  blow  across  the 
land.  During  the  winter  there  is  much 
snow.  In  summer  rain  falls  abundantly 
on  the  lower  mountain  slopes  and  on 
the  plateau. 

22Q.  Grazing  and  Agriculture.  —  There 
is  excellent  pasture  on  many  of  the 
mountain  slopes  and  in  the  higher  moun- 
tain valleys.  When  the  winter  has  passed 
and  the  snows  begin  to  melt,  the  cattle 
are  driven  into  the  upper  mountains, 
from  one  pasture  to  another.  They  feed 
in  each  pasture  as  long  as  the  grass  lasts 


SWITZERLAND 


.IP^ 


21.  Where  is  Gibraltar?    22.  By  what  country     or   until    a   higher   pasture   is   free   from 
is  this  rock  owned  ?    23.  Why  is  it  important  ?  snow.     As  winter  again   comes  on,   they 

are   driven   back   to   the   lower   pastures, 
one  after  another,  and  finally  to  the  home 

227.  Position  and  Surface. — Switzer-  buildings,  where  they  are  kept  during  the 
land  is  a  country  of  the  central  Alps,  cold  winter  months.  During  the  sum- 
How  many  countries  border  it  (Fig.  mer  the  grass  that  can  be  saved  is  cut 
306)  ?  As  it  is  shut  in  on  all  sides  by  and  carried  to  the  barns  for  winter  use 
other  countries,  it  has  no  seacoast.  It  (Fig.  336). 
is  about  half  as  large 
as  Maine,  but  has 
five  times  as  many 
people. 

Much  of  its  surface 
is  occupied  by  the 
high,  snow-clad  Alps 
in  the  south,  and  the 
lower  ranges  of  the 
Jura  along  the  north- 
western border.  Be- 
tween these  two  high 
mountain  masses  is  a 
narrow,  hilly  plateau 
with  several  beauti- 
ful lakes.     This  pla- 


Fig.  336.     Making  hay  in  Switzerland 


202 


EUROPE 


The  house  and  the  barn  are  generally 
under  one  roof.  Such  buildings  are  made 
of  wood,  with  wide  overhanging  eaves. 
Great  stones  are  sometimes  placed  on 
the  roofs  to  keep  them  from  blowing 
away  when  strong  winds  sweep  through 
the  mountain  valleys. 

The  chief  industry  in  the  mountain 
valleys  is  the  making  of  butter  and  cheese. 
On  the  plateau  and  on  some  sunny  moun- 
tain slopes  the  farmers  raise  grain,  grapes, 
and  vegetables.  Other,  more  rugged 
mountain  slopes  are  covered  with  forests. 

230.  Manufactur- 
ing.— There  is  not 
much  coal  in  Switzer- 
land, and  the  Swiss 
depend  on  rluir  rapid 
streams  and  water- 
falls for  the  power 
necessary  to  run  mills 
and  factories.  I  he 
Swiss  iii,inu(:i(  tint's 
are  valuable  because 
of    their     fine     work- 


manship rather  than  be- 
cause of  the  amount  of 
material  used.  They  in- 
clude toys,  clocks,  and 
carved  woodwork,  jewelry, 
fine  watches,  lace,  linen, 
silk,  and  embroideries  (Fig. 

337)- 

Carved  woodwork  and 
toys  are  made  by  the  moun- 
taineers during  the  winter. 
Many  other  articles  also  are 
made  in  the  homes  of  the 
people.  The  three  manu- 
facturing centers  are  Zurich 
and  Bast'l  (Fig.  338),  noted 
for  their  silks,  and  Geneva, 
famous  for  its  watches. 
As  Switzerland  has  no  seacoast,  com- 
merce is  carried  on  by  rail  (Sec.  195). 

231.  Language  and  Government. — 
Nearly  all  mountain  people  are  brave 
and  fearless.  The  Swiss  have  long  been 
free  and  independent  because  they  have 
fought  for  their  freedom  when  necessary. 
For  many  years  Switzerland  has  been  a 
republic.      Bern   is  the  capital. 

Fhere  is  no  Swiss  language.  Many  of 
the  people  near  Germany  and  Austria 
speak  German,  others  near  France  speak 
French,  and  a  few  near  Italy  speak  Italian. 


Fig.  338.     Basel,  on  the  Rhine  River,  Switzerland 


SWITZERLAND,   ITALY 


203 


232.  Tourists  and  People. 
— The  wonderful  snow-clad 
mountains,  the  beautiful  val- 
leys, and  the  great  glaciers 
attract  tourists  from  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Every  sum- 
mer thousands  of  people  go 
to  Switzerland  for  a  vaca- 
tion. Providing  for  these 
tourists  furnishes  employ- 
ment for  many  of  the  Swiss 
people.  The  dress  of  the 
Swiss  mountaineers  is  pictur- 
esque. It  is  quite  different 
from  that  which  we  usually 

see.  There  is  good  reason  for  this. 
People  who  live  in  mountainous  countries 
must  wear  clothing  that  is  suitable  for 
mountain  climbing.  It  must  be  strong, 
and  loose,  especially  at  the  knees.  Be- 
sides such  clothing  the  Swiss  mountaineers 
usually  wear  hats  with  some  kind  of 
bright-colored  ornament. 

Review  of  Sections  227  to  232. — i.  Where  is 
Switzerland  .?  2.  Which  parts  of  its  surface  are 
most  mountainous?     3.  What  part  is  a  plateau? 

4.  Tell  about  the  climate  of  Switzerland. 

5.  For  what   are  the   mountam   valleys  used  ? 

6.  What  is  done  with  the  grass  that  can  be  cut  ? 

7.  What  are  the  chief  products  of  this  part  of 
Switzerland  ?  8.  Where  is  the  agricultural  sec- 
tion ? 

9.  What  are  the  leading  manufactures  of 
Switzerland?  10.  What  power  is  used  ?  11.  How 
is  trade  carried  on  between  Switzerland  and  lands 
across  the  mountains  ? 

12.  What  form  of  government  has  Switzer- 
land ?  13.  What  languages  are  used  ?  14.  Why 
is  this  country  visited  by  many  tourists  ? 

ITALY 

233.  Position  and  Surface. — Italy  oc- 
cupies the  central  one  of  the  three  south- 
ern peninsulas  of  Europe.  It  is  a  long, 
narrow  country,  shaped  much  like  a  boot 


Fig.  339.     Harvesting  wheat  in  the  Po  Valley 


with  a  wide  top  (Figs.  306,  307).  At  the 
toe  of  the  boot  is  the  island  of  Sicily,  and 
west  of  the  peninsula  is  the  island  of  Sar- 
dinia.    Both  islands  belong  to  Italy. 

The  Alps  border  the  peninsula  on  the 
north  and  on  the  northwest.  Near  Genoa 
they  unite  with  the  Apennines,  which 
continue  southeast  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  peninsula. 

As  the  Apennines  are  high  and  broad, 
the  eastern  and  western  coast  plains  are 
narrow.  There  are  fertile  valleys  among 
the  mountains,  and  small  lowlands  along 
the  rivers.  The  largest  lowland  of  Italy 
is  the  valley  of  the  river  Po,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  between 
the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 

234.  Agriculture. — The  climate  of  Italy 
is  mild,  but  the  summer  rainfall  is  not 
enough  for  crops,  and  the  land  must  be 
irrigated.  In  parts  of  the  Po  Valley, 
with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  two  or  more 
crops  are  raised  each  year.  The  principal 
products  of  this  valley  are  wheat,  corn, 
rice,  and  vegetables.  Here  also  are  large 
groves  of  mulberry  trees,  and  Italy  out- 
ranks France  in  the  production  of  raw 
silk. 


204 


EUROPE 


Fig.  340.     Carrara  marble  quarry 


ever,  get  some  idea  of  their 
beauty  from  the  ruins  that 
are    still    left.      About   the 
Forum,  or  ancient   market 
place,  are  remains  of  its  old 
temples   and    other    public 
buildings  (Fig.  341).     Near 
the    Forum    may    still    be 
seen  the  ruins  of  the  Col- 
osseum, an  immense  build- 
ing with  seats  for  80,000, 
Around  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  in  the     where  the  people  of  ancient  Rome  gath- 
warm  southern  valleys  and  coast  plains,     ered  to  see  men  and  animals  fight, 
oranges,   lemons,   grapes,   and   olives   are         The    Pope,    the    head    of   the    Roman 
grown.  Catholic   Church,   lives   in   Rome   in   the 

235.  Other  Industries. — There  is  little  palace  called  the  Vatican.  Connected 
mining  in  Italy,  though  some  sulphur  with  the  Vatican  is  the  great  church  of 
is  found  on  the  island  of  Sicily.     A  fine     St.   Peter's. 

quality  of  white  marble  is  quarried  near  237.  Other  Cities.  —  Naples  is  the 
Carrara  in  the  northern  part  of  the  largest  city  of  Italy,  and  an  important 
peninsula  (Fig.  340).  seaport.     It   lies   on   a   beautiful    bay   in 

The  manufactures  of  Italy  are  not  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country, 
extensive,  but  they  are  developing  rapidly.  Near  it  is  Mount  Vesuvius,  a  volcano 
Silk  and  cotton  goods,  lace,  and  gloves  that  is  still  active.  Another  active  vol- 
are  among  the  most  important.  Most  cano,  Etna,  is  on  the  island  of  Sicily, 
of  the  raw  cotton  is  imported  from  the  and  a  third,  Stromboli,  is  on  a  small 
United  States.  Wine  and  olive  oil  are  island  between  them, 
made  in  large  quantities. 

Pishing  is  an  iinjior- 
tant  industry,  especially 
along  the  eastern  coast. 

236.  The  City  of  Rome. 
Rome,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  was  at  one 
time  the  center  ol  ;iii 
empire  that  controlkd  ;i 
large  i)art  of  the  world 
then  known.  This  was 
nearly  two  thousand 
years  ago,  and  most  ol 
the  splendid  buildings  ol 
that  time  have  been  de- 
stroyed.    We  may,  how- 


I 


Fi^.  .^41.     Tin-  Roman  Forum,  with  ruins  of  ancient  buildings 


ITALY.   AUSTRIA 


205 


Fig.  342.     Public  square  in  Florence 


Fig.  343.     A  landing  place  for  boats,  in  Venice 


Florence  (Fig.  342)  has  large  picture 
galleries,  in  which  have  been  gathered 
the  paintings  and  statues  made  by  many 
Italians  and  other  great  artists.  It  is 
the  center  of  a  large  region  where  grapes 
are   raised    and    used    for    making   wine. 

Genoa,  the  chief  seaport  of  Italy,  was 
the  birthplace  of  Christopher  Columbus. 
Here  are  shipyards  and  cotton  mills. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the 
Italian  cities  is  Venice,  built  on  a  group 
of  islands  near  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  It  has  narrow,  winding  footpaths, 
but  no  broad  streets  such  as  we  usually 
find  in  large  cities.  People  commonly 
travel,  and  goods  are  carried,  in  boats, 
on  canals  which  take  the  place  of  streets 
(Fig.  343).  Not  far  from  Venice  is 
Trieste,  another  port  on  the  Adriatic. 

Milan  and  Turin  are  manufacturing 
cities  in  the  valley  of  the  Po. 

Review  of  Sections  233  to  237. — i.  Where  is 
haly?  2.  What  is  Its  shape?  3.  What  two 
islands  near  Italy  belong  to  it?  4.  I5y  what 
mountains  is  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula 
bordered?  5.  What  mountains  occupy  the  central 
part?     6.     Where  are  the  lowlands? 


7.  Describe  the  climate  of  Italy.  8.  Why  must 
irrigation  be  used  in  growing  crops  ?  9.  What  are 
the  principal  crops  of  the  Po  Valley  ?  10.  Where 
are  tropical  fruits  grown  ? 

II.  What  stone  comes  from  the  Carrara 
quarries?  12.  What  manufactures  are  carried  on 
in  Italy  ? 

13.  What  famous  ruins  are  in  Rome?  Name 
two  great  buildings  now  in  use.  14.  What  two 
cities  are  important  seaports?  15.  Where  are 
they?  16.  For  what  is  Florence  noted  ?  17.  Why 
is  Venice  interesting?  iS.  What  two  manufac- 
turing cities  are  in  the  Po  Valley  ? 

AUSTRIA,  HUNGARY,   AND 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 

238.  Austria. — Northeast  of  Italy  is 
Austria.  Before  the  World  War,  the 
emperor  of  Austria  was  also  king  of 
Hungary,  and  the  "  dual  monarchy  "  of 
Austria-Hungary  was  one  of  the  largest 
countries  in  Europe.  In  191 8  the  em- 
peror-king was  deposed  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary was  broken  into  i)ieces.     (Fig.  307.) 

The  new  republic  of  Austria  is  much 
smaller  than  the  old  Austria,  and  has  a 
population  about  one  fourth  as  large. 
Most  of  the  people  are  Germans. 


206 


EUROPE 


r 


Austria  is  largely  a  region 
of  mountains  with  some  fertile 
valleys,  especially  along  the 
Danube  River.  There  are 
forests  and  pasture  lands  on 
the  mountain  slopes,  and  in 
the  more  level  agricultural  re- 
gions grain,  potatoes,  grapes, 
and  other  crops  are  grown. 
The  chief  mineral  deposits  are 
coal,  iron,  and  salt,  and  there 
are  some  manufactures. 

Vienna,  the  capital,  is  an  art 
and  music  center.  It  is  one  of 
the  large  cities  of  Europe. 

239.  Hungary.  —  After  the 
World  War  parts  of  Hungary 
were  added  to  countries  on  the 
north,  east,  and  south.  The 
region  that  is  now  called  Hun- 
gary is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Hungarians. 
It  is  less  than  one  third  the  size  and 
has  less  than  one  half  the  population  of 
Hungary  as  it  was  before  the  war. 

Most  of  the  country  is  a  plain,  and  the 
chief  industries  are  agriculture,  grazing, 
and  forestry.  The  leading  crops  are 
wheat  and  corn,  but  much  rye,  barley, 
and  oats  are  also  grown.  Cattle,  sheep, 
hogs,  and  horses  are  raised  (Fig.  345). 


Fig.  344.     Public  square,  Vienna 


1 

^ 

.    ^* 

m 

fk 

'  \ 

-  •* 

k" 

'  *, 

II    ,:,, 


The  Danube  River  is  a  trade  route  of 
great  importance  for  Hungary  as  for 
Austria.  As  the  map  (Fig.  306)  shows, 
neither  of  these  countries  has  any  seacoast. 

Budapest,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Danube. 
It  is  the  chief  trade  center,  and  manufac- 
tures flour  and  other  agricultural  products 
and  agricultural  machinery. 

240.  Czechoslovakia. — North  of  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary  is  the  republic  of 
Czechoslovakia.  The  country  gets  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  most  of  its  people 
are  either  Czechs  or  Slovaks.  These  two 
groups  of  people  speak  languages  that  are 
nuuli  alike.  Until  1918  nearly  all  of 
C/cclioslovakia  formed  a  part  of  the  old 
Austria-Hungary.  On  the  north  and 
west  it  is  separated  from  Poland  and 
(Icrmany  by  bordering  mountains.  Its 
western  part,  Bolicniia,  is  a  low  plateau 
that  slopes  IVomi  the  soutli  toward  the 
north.  Its  eastern  part  is  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 


AUSTRIA.   HUNGARY,   CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


207 


241.  The  Industries  of 
Czechoslovakia.  -  Czecho- 
slovakia is  a  country  ot 
abundant  natural  resources 
and  of  great  industries. 
The  plains  and  river  val- 
leys are  agricultural  re- 
gions of  unusual  fertility. 
The  mountain  districts  are 
rich  in  a  variety  of  min- 
erals, and  their  slopes  are 
covered  with  extensive 
forests  of  oak  and  pine. 
The  cities  are  centers  of 
trade  and  manufacture. 

The  principal  crops  are  corn,  oats,  rye,     city    and    trade    center    of   the    country 
barley,   sugar  beets,   potatoes,    and   flax.     (Fig.  347). 

Wheat  is  raised,  but  not  so  extensively  as         Czechoslovakia,  like  Austria  and  Hun- 
in  Hungary.  g-^ry,   has    no    seacoast.     Its    trade  with 

Of  the  minerals  coal  and  iron  are  the     other   countries   must   be   carried  on   by 
most    important,  although    almost   every     rail  or  on   such   navigable   rivers  as  the 
useful  metal  and  mineral  is  found.     Some     Elbe  and  Danube, 
of  the   most   famous   mineral   springs   of 
the  world  are  found  in  the  western  part 
of  the  country. 

The  leading  manufactures  include  tex- 
tiles (Fig.  346),  iron  and  steel  goods, 
glassware,  sugar,  and  beer.  Prague, 
the  capital,    is    the    chief   manufacturing     territory    as 


Review    of    Sections    238   to    241. — i.    When 
was  Austria-Hungary  broken  up.''      2.    How  does 
modern  Austria  compare  in  size  and  population 
with  Austria  before  the  war.^    3.    Where  are  the 
forests  and  pasture  lands  of  Austria  .''     4.    What 
are  the  chief  crops?      5.    Name  the  capital. 
6.   To     what     countries     did     Hungary     lose 
result     of    the    World     War  ? 
7.    What  are  the   chief  Hun- 
garian   industries?      8.    What 
river    is    an    important    trade 
route  ?      9.    What      are      the 
manufacturing     industries    oi 
Budapest  ? 

10.  How  is  Czechoslovakia 
separated  from  Germany  and 
Poland?  n.  What  part  of 
the  country  is  mountamous .' 
12.  Where  are  the  agricultural 
regions?  13.  What  are  the 
principal  crops?  14.  What 
are  the  two  most  important 
minerals?  15.  What  are  the 
leading  manufactures? 
16.  What  is  the  chief  manu- 
facturing city  ? 


2o8 


EUROPE 


^^jim 


Fig.  646.     Farm  yard  iii  eastern  Yugoslavia.      The  waguiis  arc  usually  drawn  by  cattle  instead  ui  horses 


THE   BALKAN  COUNTRIES 

242.  The     Balkan     Peninsula. — The 

Turks,  coming  to  Europe  trom  Asia, 
gained  control  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
several  hundred  years  ago.  Their  rule 
was  cruel,  however,  and  in  different  parts 
of  the  peninsula  the  people  rebelled  from 
time  to  time  and  set  up  independent 
governments.  All  of  the  Balkan  coun- 
tries took  part  in  the  World 
War.     (Fig.  307.) 

Much  of  the  peninsula 
is  mountainous,  but  there- 
are  some  lowlands  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  parts. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry, but  it  has  been  in- 
terrupted by  wars,  and  the- 
people  have  little  farming 
machinery.  Many  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs  are  raised. 

243.  Yugoslavia. — South 
of  Austria  and  Hungary 
is  the  kingdom  of  Yugo- 
slavia, made  uj)  ol  Scriiia, 
Montenegro,  and  the  south- 


Fig.  J')y.     Kt)iiinaiu.iii  vvuiiuui, 
spinniiiK  wool 


em  parts  of  the  old  Austria-Hungary. 
Nearly  all  of  the  people  are  farmers  (Fig. 
348).  Corn  and  other  grains  are  the  im- 
portant crops.     Much  fruit  is  raised. 

Hogs  are  fattened  on  the  nuts  of  the 
forest.  Sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  also  are 
raised.  There  are  forests  of  oak,  pine,  and 
beech,  and  timber  is  an  important  export. 
Small  coal  and  iron  mines  are  worked. 
Belgrade,  on  the  Danube,  is  the  capital 
and  chief  trade  center. 
Much  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
Jugoslavia  passes  through 
the  free  city  of  Fiume  on 
the  Adriatic  Sea. 

244.  Roumania. — East 
of  Hungary  and  northeast 
of  J  ugoslavia  is  the  king- 
dom of  Roumania.  It  is 
bordered  by  the  Black 
Sea,  and  most  of  it  lies 
north  of  the  Danube  River, 
rhe  western  part  was  taken 
from  Austria-Hungary  at 
the  close  of  the  World  War, 
and  in  the  east  it  annexed 
other  territory.     (Fig.  307.) 


THE   BALKAN  COUNIRIES 


209 


The  mountain  region  of  the  west  is 
rich  in  mineral  resources,  its  slopes  are 
forest-covered,  ami  cattle  are  pastured  in 
the  valleys.  Coal,  gold,  and  silver  are 
mined.  The  eastern  part  is  an  agricul- 
tural region  of  great  fertility.  The  chief 
crops  are  corn  and  wheat. 

In  Roumania,  as  also  in  other  Balkan 
countries,  much  spinning  and  knitting 
are  done  by  hand   (Fig.  349). 

Bucharcsl  is  the  capital. 

245.  Bulgaria. — The  kingdom  of  Bul- 
garia is  south  of  Roumania.  On  what 
sea  does  it  border  (Fig.  306)  ?  In  spite 
of  the  rough  surface  of  the  country,  the 
leading  industry  is  agriculture,  which  is 
being  constantly  improved.  Many  sheep 
and  cattle  are  raised.  Corn  and  wheat 
are  grown,  and  large  fields  of  roses,  from 
which  the  perfume  attar  of  roses  is  made. 
Some  raw  silk  is  also  produced. 

Sofia  is  the  capital. 

246.  Albania. — In  the  distribution  of 
territory  following  the  Balkan  war  of 
191 2,  Albania  was  made  an  independent 
country.  It  lies  between  Yugoslavia  and 
the  Adriatic  Sea. 

247.  Greece  was  one  of  the 
important  lands  of  the  ancient 
world.  Long  before  the  days 
of  Rome's  greatness  the  Greeks 
had  become  powerful.  In  many 
of  their  cities  they  built  beauti- 
ful temples  and  set  up  fine 
statues.  Most  of  the  temples 
are  now  in  ruins,  and  many  of 
the  statues  have  been  lost  or 
taken  to  other  countries  and 
placed  in  museums. 

The  ancient  city  of  Athens  is 
the  capital  of  the  modern  king- 
dom (Fig.  350).  Salonica  is  the 
chief  city  of  northern  Greece. 


Fruits  are  raised  for  export,  especially 
small  grapes,  which  are  dried  and  called 
currants.  Some  grain  also  is  grown,  and 
sheep  and  cattle  are  raised. 

248.  Turkey. — European  Turkey  is 
now  limited  to  a  very  small  region  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
The  larger  part  of  Turkey  is  in  Asia. 

Co7istanti7iople,  the  capital  of  Turkey, 
is  the  largest  city  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
It  is  on  the  Bosporus,  and  formerly  con- 
trolled the  commerce  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Mediterranean.  Now  this 
commerce  is  free,  under  the  protection  of 
officials  appointed  by  many  nations. 

Review  of    Sections    242    to    248. — i.  Where 

is  the  Balkan  Peninsula  ?  2.  What  are  the 
countries  of  that  peninsula?  3.  By  what  people 
was  this  region  once  governed  } 

4.  What  are  the  leading  industries  of  Yugo- 
slavia ?  Of  Roumania  ?  Of  Bulgaria  ?  5.  What 
country  makes  attar  of  roses  ?  6.  Where  is 
Bucharest?    Belgrade?    Sofia? 

7.  What  is  left  to  remind  us  of  the  glory  of 
ancient  Greece  ?  8.  What  city  is  the  capital 
of  Greece  ?     What  are  the  industries  ? 

9.  Where  is  European  I  urkey  ?  10.  Where 
is  Constantinople  ?      11.    Why  is  it  important  ? 


Fig.  350.     The  Royal  Palace,  Athens 


2IO 


EUROPE 


L    . 

Fig.  j61.       ■  Breaking '■  flax,  Russia.     The  liber  is  atter- 
wards  spun  and  woven  into  cloth 


EASTERN   EUROPE 

249.  Russia. — Russia  in  Europe  is  only 
a  part  of  the  great  territory  held  by  the 
Russian  people.  It  is,  however,  more 
densely  populated  than  the  Russian  pos- 
sessions in  Asia,  and  is  therefore  far 
more  important.  It  is  larger  than  any 
other  country  in  Europe,  and  has  a  larger 
population. 

250.  Surface. — Most  of  Russia  in  Eu- 
rope is  a  great  plain  (Fig.  304),  but  there 
are  two  regions  of  elevation,  known  as 
the  Valdai  Mills  and  the  Ural  Mountains. 
The  Valdai  Hills  are  in  the  western  part 
of  the  country,  and  are  only  a  little  higiicr 
than  the  surrounding  plain.  Here  several 
of  the  large  Russian  rivers  have  their 
sources.  The  Ural  Mountains  form  a 
part  of  the  eastern  boundary. 

251.  Grazing,  Agriculture,  and  Lum- 
bering.— Russia  extends  so  far  north 
and  south,  and  most  of  it  is  so  distant 
from  the  sea,  that  it  has  a  great  variety 
of  climate. 


In  the  southeast  it  is  so  dry  that  agri- 
culture is  not  possible  without  irrigation, 
and  grazing  is  the  important  industry. 
This  is  the  region  of  the  steppes,  or  dry 
grasslands. 

In  the  far  north  the  plains,  called 
tundras,  are  frozen  to  a  great  depth,  but 
the  surface  thaws  in  summer.  The  tun- 
dras are  covered  with  moss,  which  fur- 
nishes food  for  the  reindeer,  the  domestic 
animal  of  northern  Russia.  The  reindeei 
draw  loads  as  horses  do  in  our  country, 
and  furnish  flesh  for  food  and  skins  to  be 
made  into  clothing. 

South  of  the  tundras  there  is  a  great 
forest  belt,  where  the  lumber  industry 
is  carried  on. 

South  of  the  forest  there  is  more  rain. 
Among  the  largest  crops  raised  are  wheat, 
rye,  and  oats.  Other  leading  crops  are 
flax,  hemp,  and  potatoes. 

252.  Mining  and  Manufacture. — 
Mining  is  one  of  the  important  Russian 
industries.  The  Ural  mountain  region 
yields  gold  and  platinum,  which  is  a  whit- 
ish metal  more  valuable  than  gold.  Far 
more  platinum  is  mined  in  Russia  than 
in  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Some  coal 
and  iron  are  mined,  but  the  oil  fields  near 
Baku  produce  so  much  petroleum  that 
it  is  used  largely  as  a  fuel  in  place  of 
coal. 

There  are  few  factories  in  Russia  for  so 
large  a  country,  but  the  people  make  many 
things  in  their  homes  (Fig.  351). 

253.  Commerce  and  Cities. — Russia 
has  an  extensive  railroad  system  and 
many  navigable  rivers.  A  vast  amount 
of  freight  is  carried  by  water.  Most  of 
the  sea-borne  trade  passes  through  the 
ports  of  Petrograd  and  Riga  on  the  Baltic 
Sea,  and  Odessa  and  Sebastopol  on  the 
Black  Sea. 


RUSSIA    IN    EUROPE 


211 


As  the  harbors  of  the  Baltic  are  frozen 
during  several  months  in  the  year,  they 
can  be  kept  open  only  by  iron  boats  that 
crush  the  ice.  For  this  reason  the  Black 
Sea  ports  are  better.  In  order  to  reach 
the  ocean,  ships  from  Baltic  and  Black 
Sea  ports  must  pass  through  waters 
controlled  by  other  nations.  As  the  Rus- 
sian people  did  not  like  this,  they  built 
the  port  of  Archangel  on  the  White  Sea, 
but  its  harbor  is  frozen  during  half  of  the 
year.  Later  they  built  Murmansk,  a  port 
on  the  open  Arctic  Ocean. 

Moscow,  the  capital,  is  the  oldest  city 
of  Russia.  It  is  noted  for  its  many  great 
churches.  It  is  an  important  manufac- 
turing and  railroad  center. 

254.  Government. — For  centuries  the 
government  of  Russia  was  harsh  and  cruel. 
The  poorer  people  of  the  farming  districts 
were  practically  slaves.  About  sixty  years 
ago  they  were  freed  and  allowed  to  own 
land.  Still  later,  the  people  were  allowed 
to  elect  representatives  to  help  in  making 
laws.  During  the  World  War  the  Rus- 
sian emperor,  or  Czar,  was  deposed,  and 
civil  war  began  between  different  Russian 
parties.  Most  of  the 
country  soon  fell  un- 
der the  control  of  the 
extreme  radical  party. 

255.  Ukraine. — The 
southern  part  of  Rus- 
sia, called  the  Ukraine, 
was  conquered  by  the 
radicals  in  1920.  It 
is  a  very  fertile  agri- 
cultural region  and 
raises  immense  crops 
of  wheat  and  corn. 
It  has  also  coal  and 
iron  mines,  and  the 
great     cities    of    Kiej 


and  Odessa.     Odessa  exports  wheat  (Fig. 
352)  and  manufactures  much  Hour. 

256.  Finland.  -Alter  a  hundred  years 
of  Russian  rule,  Finland  became  inde- 
pendent in  191 7.  It  is  a  cold  country, 
but  fine  forests  furnish  much  timber  for 
export.  Agriculture,  dairy  farming,  and 
fishing  give  employment  to  most  of  the 
l)eople.  Ilelsingfors,  a  port  on  the  Gulf 
of  I'inland,  is  the  capital  and  chief  city. 

Review  of  Sections  249  to  256. — i.  Where  is 
Russia.''  2.  How  does  l^iissia  in  Europe  compare 
in  size  with  the  other  countries  of  Europe .? 
3.  Why  clo  the  different  parts  of  Russia  have  such 
different  climates  .'' 

4.  What  region  is  given  up  to  grazing  ? 
5.  What  are  the  tundras.^  6.  In  what  part  of 
Russia  are  the  wheat  fields  ?  7.  What  other 
crops  are  grown  ? 

8.  W'hat  metals  are  found  in  Russia  ? 
9.  What  is  much  used  for  fuel  ?  10.  How  is 
the  internal  commerce  carried  on?  u.  Through 
what  ports  is  Russian  trade  carried  on  ?  12.  Why 
did  the  Russians  build  a  port  on  the  White  Sea? 

13.  Name  and  describe  the  capital  of  Russia. 

14.  What  changes  have  recently  been  made  in 
the  government  of  Russia  ? 

15.  What  is  the  Ukraine  ?  16.  What  business 
is  carried  on  at  Odessa  ? 

17.  Where  is  Finland?  18.  What  are  the 
principal  industries  of  Finland  ? 


Siuz  Canal,  near  the  deepisi  i  ui.     .\i  th.   iiv;lil  is  a  ferryboat  crossing  the  canal 


ASIA 


THE   CONTINENT 

257.  Size  and  Position. — Asia  is  the 
largest  of  the  continents.  It  is  about 
twice  as  large  as  North  America,  and 
more  than  four  times  as  large  as  Europe. 
On  the  south,  one  of  its  peninsulas  almost 
reaches  the  Equator.  At  the  north,  it 
is  bordered  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  it 
extends  nearer  to  the  North  Pole  than  the 
mainland  of  North  America  or  Europe. 

The  far  northern  part  of  the  continent 
is  very  cold.  During  most  of  the  year, 
ice  and  snow  cover  both  land  and  water. 
Where  the  coast  is  low,  therefore,  it  is 
sometimes  impossible  to  tell  where  the 
land. ends  and  the  sea  begins. 

Northeastern  Asia  is  separated  from 
North  America  by  Bering  Strait,  which 
is  less  than  forty  miles  wide.  But  there 
is  no  trade  or  travel  across  this  narrow 
strait,  because  few  people  live  in  these 
cold  northern  parts  of  the  world. 

West  of  Asia  is  the  continent  of  Europe. 
On  the  southwest  the  narrow  Isthmus  of 


Suez  connects  Asia  with  Africa.  Across 
this  isthmus  a  canal  has  been  cut  (Fig. 
354),  to  connect  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
with  the  Red  Sea.  On  the  south  and 
east  the  continent  is  bordered  by  seas 
and  bays  that  are  arms  of  the  Indian  and 
Pacific  oceans. 

258.  Coast  Line. — The  coast  line  of 
Asia  is  irregular,  and  some  of  the  seas 
and  bays  are  almost  shut  off  from  the 
ocean  by  islands   and   peninsulas. 

The  three  southern  peninsulas  of  Asia 
are  very  large.  Name  them  (Fig.  3SS). 
Indo-China  is  a  double  peninsula ;  the 
narrow  southern  part  of  it  is  called  the 
Malay  Peninsula.  What  sea  is  west  of 
India  ?     What  bay  is  east .'' 

There  are  many  islands  along  the  east- 
ern and  southern  coasts  of  Asia.  The 
most  important  group  is  the  Japan 
Islands.  What  sea  separates  them  from 
the  mainland  .''  The  islands  between 
Asia  and  Australia  are  called  the  East 
Indies.  The  Philippine  Islands  belong 
to  the  United  States  (Sec.  168). 


213 


214 


SURFACE   AND   DRAINAGE  OF   ASIA 


215 


259.  Surface  and 
Drainage.  Flic 
central  part  of  Asia 
is  a  region  of  high, 
broad  phiteaus, 

crossed  and  bor- 
dered by  mountain 
ranges  (Fig.  356). 
Find  the  Plateau  of 
Tibet  on  the  map. 
On  the  southern 
edge  of  this  plate.iu, 
in  northern  India, 
are  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  They 
include  the  highest 
ranges  in  the  world, 
with  many  high 
peaks.  The  highest  peak  of  all  is  Mt. 
Everest  (Fig.  364),  which  is  about  five 
and  one  half  miles  in  height. 

The  Himalayas  extend  generally  east 
and  west,  as  do  most  of  the  chief  moun- 
tain ranges  of  Asia  and  Europe. 

The  great  rivers  of  Asia  rise  in  the  cen- 
tral highlands,  or  in  highlands  farther 
north  and  east,  and  flow  out  across  the 
bordering  lowlands  to  the  sea. 

The  largest  of  the  bordering  lowlands 
is  the  Siberian  Plain,  which  extends  east- 
ward from  the  central  lowland  of  Europe. 
Several  large  rivers  flow  northward  across 
this  plain  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Like  the 
rivers  of  northern  Canada,  they  flood  their 
valleys  in  the  springtime,  when  the  ice 
breaks  up  after  the  long  winter  (Sec.  90). 

There  are  smaller  lowlands  along  the 
eastern  and  southern  coasts,  in  the  valleys 
of  the  great  rivers.  Still  others  border 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  Lake  Aral.  A  part 
of  the  region  around  the  Caspian  Sea  is 
lower  than  the  level  of  the  ocean.  These 
bodies  of  water  have  no  outlet  and  are  salt. 


Fig.  356.     Plowing  with  buffaloes  on  a  farm  in  Tibet 


like  Great  Salt  Lake  in  western  United 
States.  Both  the  interior  of  Arabia  and 
the  southern  part  of  India  are  high  pla- 
teaus bordered  by  ranges  of  mountains. 

Review  of  Sections  257  to  259. —  i.  How  does 
Asia  compare  in  size  with  the  other  continents  ? 
2.  What  peninsula  almost  reaches  the  Equator 
(Fig.  35S)  ?  3.  Which  one  of  the  continents 
reaches  nearest  the  North  Pole  ?  4.  Why  is  it 
sometimes  impossible  to  tell  where  the  northern 
coast  line  really  is  ? 

5.  How  far  is  it  across  Bering  Strait  ?  6.  What 
two  continents  are  near  each  other  in  this  region  ? 
7.  Why  does  this  fact  not  make  very  much  differ- 
ence to  the  people  of  the  two  continents  ?  8.  What 
isthmus  joins  Asia  to  Africa  ? 

9.  What  sea  and  bay  border  Asia  on  the  south  r 
10.  Where  is  Arabia  .?  India  ?  The  Malay  Penin- 
sula ?  Indo-China  ?  11.  Where  are  the  Japan 
Islands?     12.  Where  are  the  East  Indies? 

13.  Where  are  the  high  plateaus  of  Asia? 
14.  Where  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains  ?  Where 
is  Mt.  Everest?  15.  Why  is  this  a  noted  peak? 
16.  Where  is  the  Siberian  Plain  ?  17.  In  what  re- 
spect are  the  rivers  that  flow  north  across  this  low- 
land like  those  of  northern  Canada?  iS.  Where 
are  the  other  lowlands  of  Asia  ?  19.  What  is 
peculiar  about  the  drainage  of  the  region  around 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  Lake  .Xral  ? 


2l6 


CLIMATE,  VEGETATION,  AND  ANIMALS  OF  ASIA 


217 


Little  OT  nu  rain 
]  Light  r-iins 
I  Moderate  rains 
I  Moderately  heavy  rainS' 
I  Heavy  laias 


Previiilinir  winter  winds     - 
Prevailinif  summer  winds  - 


Fig.  358.     Rainfall  and  prevailing  winds  of  Asia 


260.  Climate  and  Vegeta- 
tion.— The  lowlands  of  the 
southeastern  hall  of  Asia 
are  warm.  Lhe  wnuis  blow 
from  the  ocean  durnig  the 
summer,  and  at  that  time 
there  are  heavy  rains. 
Southwest  winds  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  cross  India 
and  reach  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  On  the  lower 
mountain  slopes  there  is 
much  rain,  but  on  the  higher 
slopes  the  moisture  falls  as 
snow.  The  highest  slopes  are 
covered  with  snow  through- 
out the  year.  Part  of  north- 
ern India  has  the  heaviest 
rainfall  in  the  world  (Fig. 
358).  During  the  winter,  the  winds  blow  the  lower  mountain  slopes  are  forest- 
outward  from  the  center  of  the  continent,  covered.  Along  the  rivers  are  excellent 
in  all  directions.  At  this  season  many  farming  and  ])asture  lands.  Farther 
parts  of  the  country  have  little  rain.  north,  near  the  Arctic  Ocean,  are  tundras 

In    the   rainy   regions   there   are   dense     (Sec.  251)  where    only  moss  and    a    few 
forests  where  it  is  difficult  to  cut  paths     low  bushes  can  grow, 
through  the  tangle  of  vegetation.     Such         261.    Animals. — In  the  jungles  of  south- 
regions  are  caWed  jungles.  em  Asia  there  are  great  numbers  of  wild 

In  central  and  southwestern  Asia,  in-  animals,  such  as  elephants,  lions,  tigers, 
eluding  the  great  plateaus  of  Mongolia,  poisonous  serpents,  and  monkeys. 
Turkestan,  Iran,  and  Arabia,  there  is  Many  elephants  are  tamed  and  taught 
little  rain  at  any  season,  and  most  of  the  to  carry  heavy  loads.  People  who  live 
land  is  a  desert.  The  lowlands  west  of  in  desert  regions  use  the  camel  as  a  beast 
these  plateaus  also  have  little  rain.     The     of  burden. 

temperature  of  central  Asia  is  like  that  In  the  great  grazing  regions  of  Asia 
of  most  regions  a  long  distance  from  the  there  are  enormous  Hocks  of  sheep  and 
ocean.  It  is  hot  in  summer,  especially  goats  and  many  cattle  and  horses.  In 
in  the  lowlands,  and  bitterly  cold  in  the  northern  forest  are  bears,  foxes, 
winter.  sables,    and    other    fur-bearing    animals. 

The  great  Siberian  Plain  is  bordered  In  the  far  north  reindeer  feed  on  the  mcjss 
on  the  south  by  mountains  which  sepa-  of  the  tundras,  and  the  few  people  who 
rate  it  from  the  highlands  of  central  live  there  depend  upon  these  animals 
Asia.  In  the  southern  part  there  is  for  food  and  clothing.  They  also  use 
enough  rain  for  a  fine  forest  growth,  and     the  reindeer  as  beasts  of  burden. 


2l8 


ASIA 


■  .>.  '''i: 


^/dm^ 


Fig.  359.     A  family  of  Persian  nomads,  and  their  tent 


262.  The  People. — There  are  large 
parts  of  Asia  in  which  only  a  few  people 
can  live.  This  is  true  of  the  desert  re- 
gions of  the  southwest,  of  the  high  central 
plateaus,  and  of  the  cold,  barren  lands 
along  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Most  of  the  people  of  Asia  live  in  the 
fertile  river  valleys  and  on  the  coastal 
lowlands  of  the  south  and  east.  About 
half  the  population  of  the  whole  world 
is  found  in  these  parts  of  Asia.  In 
Japan.  China,  and  India  the  population 
is  very  dense. 

The  people  of  Japan  and  China  and 
some  other  j)arts  of  Asia  belong  to  the 
yellow  race.  More  than  three  fourths  of 
the  people  of  Asia  belong  to  this  race. 

Most  of  the  peoj)Ie  of  India,  Persia,  and 
Arabia  belong  to  dark-skinned  branches 
of  the  white  race.  Many  Europeans 
now  live  in  Asia,  but  chiellv  in  those 
parts  that  are  near  Kurojjc,  in  the  huge 
cities,  and  in  colonies  of  European  coun- 
tries. 

263.  Industries.  1  he  chief  industry 
of  tile  densely  settled  regions  in  the 
south  and  east  is  agriculture.  Some  of 
the  crops  are  very  different  from  those 
that  grow  in  our  country.  Others  are 
cxa(  tly  the  same. 

On   the  steppes  of  centr.il  ;in(l   western 


Asia,  where  there  is  only  enough  rain- 
fall for  grass,  grazing  is  the  most  profit- 
able industry.  In  these  regions  most 
of  the  people  live  in  tents  and  wander 
with  their  flocks  from  one  pasture  land 
to  another.  Such  wanderers  are  called 
nomads  (Fig.  359). 

Fishing  is  an  imi)ortant  industry  along 
much  of  the  southern  and  eastern  coast, 
and  in  many  of  the  rivers.  In  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  continent  the  people  live 
mainlv  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

Mining  is  not  so  important  as  it  will 
be  when  the  many  rich  mineral  deposits 
are  more  carefully  located  and  worked. 
There  are  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  and 
copper  in  some  of  the  mountains  and 
in  Siberia.  The  great  petroleum  fields 
are  at  the  east  end  of  the  Caucasus 
Mountains,  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  There 
are  coal  and  iron  deposits  in  Japan  and 
China.  The  coal  fields  in  China  are  very 
large,  and  only  a  small  part  of  the  coal 
has  been  used. 

Ill  Japan  the  nali\e  ])eoide  welcome 
visitors  and  carry  on  trade  with  many 
foreign  countries.  In  India  and  some 
l)arts  of  China  the  same  thing  is  true. 
In  some  other  parts  of  Asia  the  people 
still  object  to  visitors,  as  did  all  the 
|)e(tple  of  Asia  not  many  years  ago. 


TURKEY 


219 


Review  of  Sections  260  to  263.  —  i.  Whnt 
part  of  Asia  has  the  huavicst  rainfall  ?  2.  De- 
scribe the  climate  of  Arabia,  Iran,  and  Mongolia. 
3.  Why  is  central  Asia  very  warm  ni  summer  and 
very  cold  in  winter?  4.  \\  here  is  the  Sdierian 
forest  ?  5.  What  vegetation  is  there  in  the  far 
north  ?     Of  what  use  is  it  ? 

6.  Name  some  of  the  large  wild  annuals  of 
Asia.  7.  Where  are  they  found  .?  S.  For  what 
are  elephants  useful  ?  9.  Of  what  use  is  the  caniel  .? 
The  reindeer  ?  10.  Where  are  many  fur-bearing 
animals  found?  11.  In  what  parts  of  Asia  can 
only  a  few  people  live?  12.  Where  do  most  of 
the  people  live  ? 

13.  To  what  race  do  most  of  the  people  of  Asia 
belong  ?     14.    Where  do  white  people  live  ? 

15.  Where  is  agriculture  the  leading  industry? 
16.  In  what  parts  of  the  contment  is  grazmg 
more  important?  17.  Where  is  hshing  carried 
on?  Hunting?  18.  What  important  minerals 
are  found  in  Asia  ? 


Fig.  361.     Weaving  Turkish  rugs 


COUNTRIES  OF   SOUTHWESTERN 
ASIA 


Asia  Minor,  the  peninsula  between  the 
Black  and  Mediterranean  seas,  is  nearly 
twice  as  large  as  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, but  has  only  about  one  fifth  as  many 
people.  It  is  a  high,  uneven  plateau, 
264.  Turkey  in  Asia. — Before  the  bordered  on  the  north  and  south  by 
World  War  of  1914-1918,  the  Turkish  mountains.  On  the  slopes  of  some  of 
Empire  embraced  a  small  part  of  Europe  the  mountains  there  is  enough  rain  tor  a 
(Sec.  248)  and  much  of  southwestern  little  agriculture,  but  even  there  the 
Asia,  including  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  people  do  not  raise  much.  The  industry 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  the  of  chief  importance  in  Turkey,  as  in  other 
west  coast  of  Arabia.  The  old  Turkish  countries  of  southwestern  Asia,  is  grazing, 
government  was  cruel,  especially  to  Chris-  and  this  industry  does  not  support  a 
tians.  In  the  war  the  Turks  lost  control  dense  population.  Modern  irrigation 
of  all  their  lands  in  Asia  except  the  works,  however,  are  being  constructed 
greater  part  of  Asia  Minor.  for   the   purpose   of  bringing   more   land 

under  cultivation  (Fig.  360). 
Several  railroads  have  been 
built  in  Asia  Minor. 

There  is  very  little  manu- 
facturing in  Turkey,  or  else- 
where in  southwestern  Asia, 
except  the  making  of  beautiful 
rugs,  carpets,  and  shawls.  The 
weaving  industry  has  been  car- 
ried on  for  hundreds  of  years. 
The  best  of  the  old  rugs  are 
highly  prized  (Fig.  361). 


iiLljJ_JJj_ 

lliiii 


I  I 


Fig.  360.      I 


lam  in  Turkey 


220 


ASIA 


265.  Armenia,  Syria,  and  Palestine. — 
Armenia  is  a  plateau  land  of  farms  and 
pastures  southeast  of  the  Black  Sea,  in- 
cluding part  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Arme- 
nians are  Christians  and  are  one  of  the 
oldest  nations  on  earth.  They  once  num- 
bered perhaps  8,000,000,  but  by  the 
attacks  of  hostile  neighbors  have  been 
reduced  to  about  2,000,000. 

Two  countries  at  the  eastern  end  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  are  Syria,  under 
French  control,  and  Palestine,  under  the 
British.  Palestine  is  interesting  to  us 
because  it  is  the  Holy  Land  of  Christian 
and  Jewish  peoples. 

Along  the  coast  of  Syria  and  Palestine 
there  is  a  narrow  plain  where  figs,  olives, 
and  other  fruits  of  warm  countries  are 
grown.  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City,  stands 
on  a  low  range  of  mountains  between  the 
coast  plain  and  the  deep,  narrow  valley 
of  the  Jordan  River  and  Dead  Sea. 

The  Dead  Sea  and  a  part  of  the  Jordan 
Valley  are  below  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  there  is  no  outlet  for  the 
drainage  except  as  the  water  is  evaporated 


(Sec.  146).  The  waters  of 
the  Dead  Sea  are,  therefore, 
very  salt. 

Jerusalem  is  connected  by 
a  railroad  with  Jaffa,  a  small 
seaport  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Beirut,  the  leading 
port  of  Syria,  is  connected 
by  rail  with  Damascus,  the 
chief  city  in  this  region. 

266.  Arabia  and  Mesopo- 
tamia.— From  Damascus  a 
railroad  extends  most  of  the 
way  to  Mekka.  This  city 
was  the  birthplace  of  Mo- 
hammed, who  founded  a  re- 
ligion in  which  the  Turks, 
Arabs,  and  many  other  people  believe. 
The  Mohammedans  think  of  Mekka  as 
their  Holy  City,  and  make  pilgrimages  to 
it,  as  the  Christians  do  to  Jerusalem. 

Mekka  is  the  leading  city  of  Hedjaz,  a 
state  in  western  Arabia  which  gained  its 
independence  during  the  World  War. 

Near  the  southern  end  of  the  Red  Sea 
is  Mokha,  a  port  from  which  coffee  is 
shipped.  The  finest  Arabian  coffee  is 
kept  for  use  at  home.  What  is  sold  to 
foreign  nations  is  ot  poorer  quality. 

Oman  is  an  independent  state  of  south- 
eastern Arabia.  It  has  a  long  coast  line 
and  carries  on  trade  in  dates  and  pearls, 
cliicHy  through  Maskat,  the  capital. 

The  vast  interior  of  Arabia  is  not  well 
known.  The  people,  who  are  wanderers, 
or  nomads,  live  in  tents  and  drive  their 
flocks  from  one  pasture  land  to  another. 
They  are  ruled  by  chiefs,  called  sheiks. 

Northeast  of  Arabia   is  Mesopotamia. 

This  word  means  "  between  the  rivers." 

Mesopotamia  is  the  valley  of  the  Tigris 

and   Euphrates  rivers,  which  rise  in  the 

northern  highlands  and  have  built  flood 


COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 


221 


' '•'■•;$* 


plains  of  fine,  rich  soil.  Here,  with  the 
help  of  irrigation,  large  crops  can  be  grown. 
A  railroad  is  under  construction  from 
Asia  Minor  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  the 
World  War,  Mesopotamia  was  taken  by 
British  forces.  Most  of 
the  people  are  Arabs. 

Except  the  railroads 
already  mentioned,  we 
find  few  good  high- 
ways in  southwestern 
Asia.  Most  of  the  goods 
are  carried  across  the 
deserts  on  camels,  as 
they  have  been  for 
thousands  of  years. 
For  the  sake  of  protec- 
tion against  robbers, 
many  camel  owners 
travel  together  and 
form  a  caravan. 

Review  of  Sections  264  (o 
266.^1.  In  what  part  of 
Asia  is  Turkey  ?  2.  Where 
is  Arabia?  3.  How  does 
Asia  Minor  compare  with 
the  British  Isles  in  size.''  In 
population  ?    4.   Why  is  the 

population  so  small.''  5.  What  is  the  most  im- 
portant industry  in  the  countries  of  southwestern 
Asia  ?  6.  What  is  the  chief  manufacture  of  those 
countries .' 

7.  Where  is  Syria  ?  Palestine  ?  8.  Why  is 
Palestine  interesting  ?  9.  Where  are  the  follow- 
ing places,  and  why  are  they  interesting:  Jerusa- 
lem, Jaffa,  Beirut,"  Mekka,  Mokha  ?  10.  Why 
are  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  salt  ? 

II.  Where  is  Hedjaz?  Oman?  12.  Where  is 
Mesopotamia?  What  does  the  word  mean? 
13.  Why  is  this  an  important  region?  14.  What 
mdustry  is  carried  on  in  the  interior  of  .Arabia  ? 
15.  How  are  goods  carried  across  the  deserts  of 
southwestern  Asia  ? 

267.  Persia. — -Persia  is  east  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. What  waters  border  it  on  the 
north  and  on  the  south  ( F"ig.  357)  ?  Persia 
is  more  than  five  times  as  large  as  the 


Fig.  363.     A  castle  in  Oman 


British  Isles,  but  has  only  about  one  fifth 
as  many  peojjle.  Teheran  is  the  capital. 
Find  it  on  the  map. 

Much  of  the  country  is  a  desert. 
Like  Asia  Minor,  most  of  Persia  is  a 
high  plateau  bordered 
by  mountains.  The 
chief  industry  of  Per- 
sia is  grazing.  The 
rain  that  falls  on  the 
mountain  slopes  fur- 
nishes water  for  some  ir- 
rigation. In  the  moun- 
tain valleys,  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  grain  and 
fruit  are  raised.  Silk, 
cotton,  and  wool  are 
produced  also.  Many 
of  the  people  are  en- 
gaged in  transporting 
goods  across  the  desert. 
The  finest  Persian 
shawls,  rugs,  and  car- 
pets are  even  more 
beautiful  than  those  of 
Turkey.  The  patterns 
used  are  hundreds  of  years  old. 

268.  Afghanistan. — Afghanistan  lies 
east  of  Persia  and  north  of  India.  It  is  a 
mountainous  country,  nearly  as  large  as 
Texas.  Grazing  is  the  leading  industry, 
and  many  horses,  camels,  and  sheep  are 
raised  here.  There  is  also  some  agriculture, 
but,  as  in  Turkey  and  Persia,  irrigation 
is  necessary  and  the  crops  are  not  large. 

Review  of  Sections  267  and  268. — i.  Where  is 

Persia  ?  2.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  and 
population  with  (Jreat  Britain  ?  3.  Where  is 
agriculture  carried  on  ?  4.  Name  some  of  the 
important  products.  5.  What  other  industries 
are  carried  on  ? 

6.  Where  is  Afghanistan  ?  7.  Tell  about  its 
industries. 


>^»fc.- 


•^  ■'p*; 


"•^^v 


an 


im'  ,'K.':*f'.<^'.ii:fr ' 


b'i^.  Ju4.     buiiiinil3  ol  llu:  HimilMy.-i  M'lUiilmiiH.  tlic  grcul  moiiiilain  raiiKf  of  smilli. .  n  />   i  ..      The  most  dislaiil  peak, 
near  the  center,  is  Mount  Everest,  the  highest  mountain  peak  in  tlic  world 


INDIA 


223 


COUNTRIES  OF   SOUTHEASTERN 
ASIA 

269.  India. — The  Empire  of  India,  or 
British  India,  as  it  is  often  called,  belongs 
to  Great  Britain,  and  the  king  of  Great 
Britain  is  also  emperor 
of  India.  This  country 
occupies  the  peninsula  of 
India  and  includes  Balu- 
chistan on  the  west  and 
Burma  on  the  east. 

Burma  is  a  part  of  the 
peninsula  of  Indo-China 
and  borders  on  the  Bay 
of  Bengal.  It  is  about 
as  large  as  Texas,  and 
has  three  times  as  many 
people.  The  rainfall  is 
heavy  and  the  soil  is 
fertile.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  rice  and  lumber. 

Baluchistan  is  a  region 
of  barren  mountains,  des- 
erts, and  stony  plains. 
There  is  but  little. rain,  the  summers  are 
hot,  and  the  winters  very  cold.  Wherever 
there  is  enough  water  to  make  it  possible 
the  land  is  cultivated.  Grain  and  fruit 
are  the  chief  products. 

North  of  India,  in  the  mountains,  is 
Nepal,  a  small  country  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Great  Britain. 

Northern  India  is  a  region  of  great 
highlands.  Here  are  the  southern  ranges 
of  the  Himala^^as,  the  highest  mountains 
of  the  world  (Fig.  364).  During  the  sum- 
mer time,  in  this  part  of  Asia,  the  winds 
are  from  the  ocean.  The  rainfall  is  more 
than  100  inches  a  year.  Because  of  the 
heavy  rains  and  the  large  amount  of  water 
that  comes  from  the  melting  snow,  great 
rivers  have  their  sources   in  these  high- 


Fig.  365.    Bathing  in  tlie  Ganges,  Benares 


lands.  They  flow  for  long  distances 
through  the  mountain  valleys  before  they 
reach  the  bordering  lowlands.  South  of 
the  Himalaya  Mountains  they  have  built 
a  great  lowland  plain  of  the  material 
brought  down  from  the  highlands.  Name 
the  three  longest  rivers 
of  this  plain  (Fig.  355). 

The  lowland  plain  of 
India  stretches  in  a  broad 
belt  across  the  peninsula 
from  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
to  the  Arabian  Sea.  It 
has  a  fine  and  fertile  soil 
and  is  the  chief  agricul- 
tural region  and  the  most 
densely  })opulated  part  of 
India.  In  the  east,  along 
the  lower  courses  of  the 
Ganges  and  Brahma- 
putra, there  is  usually 
enough  rain  for  agricul- 
ture. Farther  west  it  is 
often  necessary  to  irrigate 
the  land.  The  British 
government  has  greatly  enlarged  and  im- 
proved the  old  irrigation  works  of  the 
natives. 

South  of  the  lowland  plain  is  the 
Dekkan  Plateau.  Its  eastern  and  western 
borders  have  been  named  the  Eastern 
Ghats  and  the  Western  Ghats.  During 
the  summer,  when  the  winds  blow  from 
the  ocean,  there  are  heavy  rains  along 
the  seaward  slopes  of  the  Western  Ghats. 
The  rains  on  the  plateau  are  more  mod- 
erate. In  the  winter,  the  winds  blow 
from  the  land  (Fig.  35S),  and  there  is  less 
rain.  In  many  parts  of  the  plateau, 
irrigation  is  necessary,  and  here,  as  in 
the  northern  plain,  new  works  have  been 
built  and  the  native  works  have  been 
greatly  improved. 


224 


ASIA 


270.  Products  of 
India. — Rice,  wheat, 
and  millet  are  the  im- 
portant food  crops  of 
India.  Much  of  the 
rice  is  raised  along 
the  lower  Ganges  and 
in  the  region  around 
the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
Most  of  it  is  needed 
for  home  use,  but 
much   is  exported. 

Wheat  is  grown  on 

the  Dekkan  and  on  the  northern  plains.  Valley,  and  cotton  on  the  Dekkan  and 
In  years  when  crops  are  good,  much  elsewhere.  Some  of  the  cotton  is  manu- 
wheat  is  exported,  especially  to  Great  factured  in  the  mills  of  India,  but  most 
Britain.  Millet,  a  cereal  with  big  heads  of  it  is  sent  to  England, 
of  small  seeds,  is  used  by  the  poorer  Jute,  silk,  spices,  teakwood,  and  in- 
people  in  place  of  wheat.  digo  and  other  dyes   are  valuable  prod- 

When  these  crops  fail,  because  of  ucts.  Teak  is  an  especially  useful  wood, 
lack  of  rain  or  for  some  other  reason,  food  because  it  does  not  decay  easily  and  be- 
must  be  sent  from  other  parts  of  the  cause  worms  do  not  destroy  it,  as  they  do 
world,  and  even  then  thousands  of  people     many  woods  in  warm  countries. 


...-MP-/     - 

Fig.  367.     Ships  in  the  harbor  of  Bombay 


Starve.  Famines  have  been  frequent, 
even  in  recent  years,  and  millions  of 
people  have  starved  to  death. 

Much  tea  is  grown  in  the  Brahmaputra 


Fig.  366.     l'''U<iji>u  liM'li;'   •I'.M  ilii   Ilin;li  Kivcr, 
mouth  of  the  G.-inRcs,  at  Calcutta 


Some  minerals  are  found  in  India. 

Railroads  and  navigable  rivers  make 
trade  with  the  interior  easy.  The  foreign 
trade,  much  of  which  is  with  CJreat 
Britain,  is  carried  on  chiefly  through  the 
ports  of  Calcutta  and  Bombay. 

271.  Cities  and  People  of  India. — Cal- 
cutta is  on  the  Ganges  delta,  not  tar  up- 
stream from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  (Fig.  366). 
It  is  the  largest  city  of  India  and  was  for 
many  years  the  capital.  In  191 1,  how- 
ever, the  government  was  moved  back 
to  the  ancient  ca])ital  city,  Delhi.  Finil 
this  city  on  the  map.  Boinhay,  on  the 
west  coast,  has  a  better  harbor  than 
Calcutta,  and  its  trade  is  steadily  growing 
(Fig.  367). 

The  natives  of  India  are  largely  of  the 
white  race,  and  most  of  them  are  called 
Hindus,      iheir  Holy  City  is  Benares,  on 


INDIA,   CEYLON 


225 


the  Ganges  River  (Fig.  365). 
There  are  many  other  large 
cities  in  India.  Tlie  total 
population  of  the  country  is 
ahout  three  times  that  of  the 
United  States,  although  its 
area  is  less  than  two  thirds 
as  great. 

In  India,  as  in  most  of  the 
warm  southern  countries  of 
Asia,  many  of  the  natives 
have  fine,  strong  bodies  and 
are  able  to  work  hard.  Be- 
cause of  the  climate  they  wear  but  little 
clothing.  The  people  from  Europe  and 
other  cooler  countries  find  it  necessary  to 
use  light  clothing  and  adopt  many  of  the 
native  ways.  Even  then  few  of  them 
can  live  in  such  hot  countries  for  many 
years. 

One  of  the  things  that  prevent  prog- 
ress in  India  is  the  caste  system.  The 
Hindus  are  divided  into  several  great 
family  groups,  or  castes,  and  the  members 
of  each  caste  follow  the  same  occupation 
and  have  as  little  as  possible  to  do  w  itli 
the  people  who  belong  to  other  castes. 


li^fir^v'^ 


Fig.  368.     Elephants  bathing,  India 


272.  Ceylon. — Southeast  of  the  penin- 
sula of  India  is  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
which  is  nearly  as  large  as  Ireland.  It 
belongs  to  Great  Britain.  Its  products 
include  rice,  coconuts,  rubber,  spices,  and 
especially  tea  (Fig.  369),  in  the  grow- 
ing of  which  it  holds  a  leading  position. 
There  are  many  mines  of  graphite,  a  min- 
eral used  in  making  the  "  lead  "  for  our 
lead  pencils. 

Colombo,  the  capital,  is  important  as 
a  coaling  and  food  station  for  ships  en- 
gaged in  trade  between  eastern  Asia  and 
F'.uropean  ports. 

Review  of  Sections  269  to  272. — i.  Where  is 


British   hidia 


Whc 


Hur 


What 


its  chief  products  .''     3.  Where  is  Bakichistan  .^ 
4.  Where  are  the  agricultural  regions  of  India.? 

5.  Where  is  it  necessary  to  use  irrigation  ?     Why  ^ 

6.  How  has  the  British  government  helped  agri- 
culture in  India .''  7.  Where  is  rice  grown  .'' 
Wheat.''  Tea.?  Cotton.?  8.  Where  is  much  of 
the  cotton  manufactured  ? 

9.  Through  what  ports  is  most  of  the  foreign 
trade  carried  on  .^  10.  Where  is  Delhi  .^  Benares.? 
\\  hy  are  these  places  interesting  ? 

11.  Compare  India  \\ith  the  United  States  in 
size  and  in  population. 

12.  \\'hat  is  the  caste  system?  13.  How  does 
it  interfere  with  the  progress  of  India  ? 

14.  Where  is  Ceylon  ?  15.  To  what  country 
does  this  island  belong?  16.  What  are  its  im- 
portant products?  17.  What  city  is  the  capi- 
tal?     18.   Why  is  it  an  important  port? 


226 


ASIA 


273.  Indo-China. — Indo-China  is  the 
easternmost  of  the  three  southern  penin- 
sulas of  Asia.  Part  of  it  is  the  long, 
narrow  Malay  Peninsula,  which  extends 
southward  almost  to  the  Equator. 

Western  Indo-China  includes  Burma, 
which  has  already  been  studied,  and 
Siam.  The  eastern  part  belongs  to 
France  and  is  called  French  Indo-China. 
The  Mekong  River  forms  the  boundary 
between  Siam  and  French  Indo-China 
for  a  long  distance.  Bangkok  is  the 
capital  of  Siam. 

Both  Siam  and  French  Indo-China 
are  mountainous,  but  have  abundant  rain, 
and  in  both,  agriculture  is  the  chiet  in- 
dustry. Rice  and  millet  are  raised,  and 
many  valuable  woods,  including  teak, 
are  found  in  the  forests.  Other  products 
include  spices,  tea,  silk,  and  some  gems 
and  metals. 

At  the  southern  end  of  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula is  the  British  colony  called  the 
Straits  Settlements,  and  near  it  are  some 
small  native  states  under  the  protection 
of  the  British  government.  Here  spices 
(Fig.  370),  gums,  and  fruits  are  produced, 


Fig.  370.     Pepper  plants  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula 


Fin.  :i71.     Suii;il 
Commercial 


but  the  region  is  noted  chiefly  for  its  rub- 
ber plantations  and  its  tin  mines,  which 
yield  more  rubber  and  tin  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  Singapore  is  an 
English  city  on  an  island  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  peninsula.  Its  position  has 
made  it  an  important  coaling  and  supply 
station,  especially  for  ships  that  are  engaged 
in  carrying  goods  between  the  ports  of  Eu- 
rope and  those  of  eastern  Asia  (Fig.  371). 

274.  The  East  Indies. — The  Philip- 
pines (Sec.  168)  belong  to  the  United 
States,  and  the  other  islands  of  the  East 
Indies  belong  to  European  nations.  The 
map  (Fig.  357)  shows  what  countries 
own  islands  in  these  waters. 

The  most  important  of  these  islands 
belong  to  the  Netherlands.  Java  has  a 
much  greater  population  than  all  the 
rest  of  the  East  Indies  together.  This 
island  produces  rice,  coffee,  tea,  sugar, 
rubber,  and  tobacco.  Batavia  is  the  capi- 
tal. The  trade  is  chiefly  with  the  Neth- 
erlands. 

Sumatra,  a  part  of  Borneo,  and  a  part 
of  New  Guinea,  as  well  as  many  smaller 
islands,  also  belong  to  the  Netherlands. 

Review  of  Sections 
273  and  274. —  1.  \\  luit 
countries  are  included  in 
hulo-China  .^  2.  Name 
some  of  the  important 
products  of  each  country. 
3.  Where  are  the  Straits 
Settlements  .''  4.  Where  is 
Bangkok  ^     Singapore  f 

5.  To  what  nation  do 
tlu'  Phihiipiius  lu'long? 
(1.  W'liat  other  nations 
own  islands  in  the  East 
Indies?  7.  What  country 
owns  the  hirgest  numher 
of  these  islands  }  8.  What 
is  the  most  populous  is- 
hiiui  r  <j.  W'liat  arc  its  prod- 
ucts ?  10.  Wirli  what  coun- 
tr}'  does  it  cliicHy  trade? 


|Pfi''-^l|-^ 


'  >i  '    li.irlKir,  as  s( cii  troiii 
Square,  Singapore 


CHINA 


227 


Hanyang  lion  VVui  ks,  a  large  modern  industrial  plant.     Beyond  the  nvtr  is  Hankow 


CHINA 

275.  Political  Divisions.  —  China  is  in 
the  east-central  part  of  Asia.  Some 
parts  of  the  country  are  densely  peopled, 
and  its  total  population  is  more  than 
twice  that  of  North  America. 

China  was  once  a  "  hermit "  nation. 
The  Chinese  people  would  not  trade  with 
foreigners,  nor  permit  strangers  to  enter 
their  country.  For  many  centuries  they 
made  no  change  in  their  mode  of  life. 

In  recent  years,  however,  there  have 
been  many  changes.  Chinese  ports  have 
been  opened  to  foreign  trade.  Many 
young  Chinese  have  gone  to  school  in 
the  United  States  and  other  countries. 
Mines  have  been  dug,  and  railroads  and 
factories  built  (Fig.  372).  Finally,  in  191 2, 
the  Chinese  government  was  changed. 
For  hundreds  of  years  it  had  been  an  em- 
pire, but  it  was  then  made  a  republic. 

In  addition  to  the  country  properly 
called  China,  the  Chinese  claim  con- 
trol over  four  provinces,  —  Tibet,  Sin- 
kiang,  Mongolia,  and  Manchuria.  The 
old  northern  boundary  of  China  is  marked 


for  a  thousand  miles  by  the  famous  Great 
Wall,  which  was  originally  built  as  a 
defense  against  invaders. 

276.  Tibet. — Tibet  is  the  southwestern 
province,  and  is  north  of  India.  It  is  a 
high  plateau  with  higher  mountain  ranges 
bordering  and  crossing  it.  Much  of  the 
plateau  is  so  high  that  it  is  very  cold, 
and  it  is  so  shut  in  by  mountains  that 
there  is  little  rain.  The  people  keep 
goats,  sheep,  and  yaks.  For  food  they 
depend  chiefly  upon  the  flesh  of  these 
animals  and  upon  the  rich  milk  of  the 
yak.  Much  of  their  clothing  is  made 
from  the  wool,  hair,  or  hides  of  these 
animals.  The  yak,  wliich  is  like  a  large 
ox,  is  also  used  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The 
population  is  not  dense  anywhere,  be- 
cause there  is  not  enough  food  to  keep  a 
large  population  alive.  Most  of  the  peo- 
ple live  in  the  upper  Brahmaputra  Valley, 
where  there  is  some  agriculture  (Fig.  356). 

Lassa  is  the  sacred  city  of  the  Tibetans 
and  the  capital  of  the  province.  Strangers 
are  not  welcome  in  Tibet.  Few  foreigners 
have  visited  the  province,  and  very  few 
have  ever  entered  the  capital  city. 


228 


ASIA 


.v:?^''"'^^^^^^^^€i 


Fig.  373.     Exports  of  Manchuria — bean  cake  and 
oil — at  Dairen 


277.  Other  Provinces. — North  of  Tibet 
is  the  province  of  Sinkiang,  a  desert 
country  of  no  great  importance.  The 
inhabitants  are  nomads.  There  are,  how- 
ever, a  few  places  where  springs  or  oases 
have  made  small  settlements  possible. 

Mongolia  is  a  mountainous  and  dry 
province  in  which  grazing  is  the  most 
important  industry. 

Manchuria  lies  east  of  Mongolia  and 
borders  on  the  Yellow  Sea.  It  is  a 
region  of  plains.  The  soil  is  excellent, 
the  climate  is  temperate,  and  there  is 
enough  rain  for  farming.  This  province 
produces  large  crops  ot  millet,  wheat, 
and  beans  (Fig.  373). 

278.  The  Real  China. — China  is  south 
of  Mongolia,  with  a  long  seacoast  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  On  the  coast  and  along 
the  great  rivers  there  are  beaut  it  ul,  bioad, 
fertile  lowlands.  In  rlu-  Muitl'  and  west 
the  country  is  mountainous,  like  the 
adjoining  districts  in  Indo-China  and 
Tibet. 

In  iniuh  of  China  there  is  plenty  of 
rain  for  agriculture,  and  in  the  south- 
eastern |)art  the  rainfall  is  often  \ery 
heavy.      The  soil   is  Ime   and   rich,  espe- 


cially in  the  valleys  of  the  two  great 
rivers,  the  Yangtze  and  the  Hwang. 

These  two  rivers  rise  in  the  interior 
highlands  of  eastern  Tibet  and  flow  for 
hundreds  of  miles  across  China  to  arms 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Hwang  has 
frequent  floods,  and  at  times  of  very  high 
water  the  river  sometimes  changes  its 
course  through  the  lowlands  and  causes 
a  great  loss  of  life. 

279.  The  Leading  Industries. — A  fine, 
rich  soil  is  brought  down  by  the  Yangtze 
and  Hwang  during  flood  times,  and  in 
their  valleys  agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry.  The  land  is  cultivated  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  in  soine  regions 
three  or  four  crops  are  raised  each  year 
in  the  same  fields.     On  the  steeper  slopes 


m»'t*.*'*    *.^iHtSi^yi 

i^ 

^ 

"^              -'^^^^^^s^ffl 

^Pk 

IPHW 

■"'       i6t^   '    ■ 

— i  i^^^^^ 

-^f^^^^^-             V   ^^iK^M^^BQtSEai 

^ 

apBill 

^^^pp 

1^;.  JlH 

a 

HI 

Fig.  374.     Irrigated  cabbage  fields,  China 


terraces  have  been  buiU,  so  that  the  soil 
will  not  wash  away  when  it  rains.  For 
making  some  ol  these  terraces,  soil  was 
carried  long  distances. 

In  parts  of  the  country  there  is  not 
enough  i;iin  lor  the  croi)s,  and  the  peoi)le 
li,i\e  biiill  irrigating  ditches  and  canals. 
I  luse  (lii(lies  are  arranged  so  that  the 
uatei  will  riui  from  one  to  another  and 
wet  the  whole  field  (I'ig.  374). 


CHINA 


229 


Fig.  375.     Chinese  lumbermen  and  rafts  of  bamboo  poles,  near  Hangchow 


Rice,  cotton,  aiul  sugar  caiie  are  grown 
in  the  lowlands.  Rice  is  the  chief  food 
of  the  people.  It  is  raised  in  fields  that 
can  be  easily  flooded.  Mulberry  trees 
are  cultivated  for  their  leaves,  on  which 
manv  millions  of  silkworms  are  fed. 
China  produces  about  one  fourth  of  the 
world's  supply  of  silk  fiber,  or  raw 
silk. 

Tea  is  another  great  product  of  China. 
A  part  of  the  Chinese  tea  is  exported, 
although  the  best  is  kept  for  home  use. 
The  poor<;st  grades  are  sent  to  the  people 
of  libet  and  Russia. 

There  are  extensive  fisheries 
along  the  coast,  and  fish  are  much 
used  for  food. 

The  Chinese  have  always  done 
much  manufacturing  by  hand  ; 
and  now  a  number  of  silk  mills 
and  cotton  mills  are  in  operation. 
There  is  a  scant}'  supply  of  lumber 
(Fig.  375).  Coal  and  metals  are 
found  in  large  quantities,  and  as 
manufacturing  increases  and  more 
railways  are  built,  the  mines  of 
China  will  become  more  and  more 
valuable. 


280.  Means  of  Transpor- 
tation.—  Ciiina  has  several 
long  railroads,  and  others  are 
being  l)uiit.  Much  of  the 
interior  trade  is  carried  on 
by  boats  and  rafts  on  the 
rivers  and  canals.  It  is  com- 
mon for  persons  living  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  to 
build  rafts  of  bamboo,  load 
them  with  produce,  float 
downstream  on  them  to  the 
markets,  sell  both  the  rafts 
and  their  loads,  and  then 
walk  back  to  their  homes. 
Wheelbarrows  with  a  large  wheel  in  the 
middle,  and  covered  chairs  carried  on  the 
shoulders  of  men,  are  in  common  use. 

281.  Methods  of  Work. — In  our  own 
country,  machines  and  tools  of  all  sorts 
are  used  to  help  us  in  our  work.  Such 
machines  will  do  the  work  of  many  men. 
Some  agricultural  machinery  has  been 
introduced  into  China  and  other  parts  of 
the  Orient.  Most  of  the  work,  however, 
is  still  done  by  hand  or  with  old-fashioned 
tools,  such  as  the  Chinese  have  used  for 
hundreds  of  years  (Fig.  376). 


Fig.  376.     Sawing  boards  by  hand,  China 


23° 


ASIA 


Fig.  377.     Lifting  water  by  hand  labor 


The  Chinese  have  several  ways  ot  Httinj; 
water  from  rivers  or  canals  for  irrigation. 
Most  of  them  require  much  human 
labor.  By  one  method  two  men  use 
a  water-tight  basket  with  long  rope 
handles.  Standing  on  the  bank,  they 
fill  the  basket  in  the  canal  and  swing 
it  over  the  land  and  empty  the  water 
into  one  of  the  irrigating  ditches  (Fig. 
377).  This  is  slow  and  hard  work,  but 
the  men  keep  at  it  for  hours  at  a  time. 

The  Chinese  are  energetic  and  hon- 
est and  they  are  skillful  farmers  and 
merchants.  Hy  their  great  industry  they 
are  able  to  support  nearly  one  fifth  of 
the  world's  population  in  a  country  half 
as  large  as  the  United  States. 

Many  customs  of  the  Chinese  seem  odd 
to  us.  A  Chinaman  takes  off  his  shoes 
instead  of  his  hat  w  hen  he  enters  a  house. 
In  reading  a  book  he  begins  at  what  we 
should  call  the  last  page  ;  and  in  the  older 
schools  the  children  study  aloud.  We 
should  find  it  very  difficult  to  learn  our 
lessons  if  we  had  to  do  it  in  that  way. 
The  inodfrn  Chinese  schools,  however,  are 
much  like  our  own  (Fig.  378). 

Shanghai  is  the  chief  seaport  of  China. 
Peking  is  the  capital,  and  near  it  is  the 


port  of  Tientsin.  Canton  is  an 
important  port  in  the  south,  and 
Ilankozu  (Fig.  372)  is  the  chief 
city  in  the  interior. 

Much  of  the  trade  is  with 
Hongkong,  a  British  colony  near 
Canton. 

Review  of  Sections  275  to  281. — 

1.  Where    is    the    Chinese    Republic.^ 

2.  What  changes  have  taken  place  in 
China  in  recent  years  ? 

3.  Name  the  four  provinces  over 
which  China  claims  control.  4.  Where 
is  Tibet .?  5.  What  work  do  the 
Tibetans  do  ^  6.  In  which  of  the 
four  provinces  are  large  crops  raised  ?  What  are 
the  crops  ? 

7.  Where  are  the  lowlands  of  China  ?     8.  Name 
the  two  great  rivers  of  this  region. 


<■).  What  are  the  chief  crops  raised  in  China? 

10.  How  are  the  steeper  slopes  prepared  for  use? 

11.  How  is  the  land  irrigated  in   some  parts  of 
China  ? 

12.  Wii.it  ni.iiuif.icturing  is  done  ?  \}.  Mow 
are  goods  transported?  i.|.  Idl  some  Chinese 
ways  of  doing  work. 

15.  What  are  the  ciilcf  ports?  16.  What  is 
the  capital  city?  17.  Where  is  Canton?  Han- 
kow ? 


THE  empirp:  of  japan 


231 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  JAPAN 

282.  Position  and  Area. — The  Empire 
of  Japan  includes  the  islands  off  the  east 
coast  of  Asia,  between  the  peninsula  of 
Kamchatka  at  the  north  and  the  Philip- 
pines at  the  south.  It  also  includes  the 
peninsula  of  Korea  on  the  mainland  ;  and 
Dairen  (Fig.  373),  in  Manchuria,  is  under 
Japanese  rule. 

Most  of  the  Japanese  people  live  in  the 
central  group  of  large  islands.  The  area 
of  this  group  is  a  little  less  than  that  of 
the  state  of  California  ;  but  the  popula- 
tion is  more  than  half  as  great  as  that  of 
the  whole  United  States. 

283.  Physical  Features. — The  islands 
are  mountainous  and  have  been  built  in 
part  of  volcanic  material.  There  are 
still  active  volcanoes,  and  the  earth  is 
sometimes  shaken  by  earthquakes. 
Bridges  and  other  public  works  must  be 
made  very  strong,  so  that  earthquakes 
will  not  damage  or  destroy  them.  I'or 
the  same  reason  the  homes  of  the  people 


are  built  low  and  of  light  material, 
largely  bamboo,  so  that  they  will  not  be 
easily  damaged. 

The  rainfall  is  heavy.  Snow  falls  on 
the  higher  mountains  and  on  the  northern 
islands.  The  most  beautiful  mountain 
peak  in  Japan  is  the  snow-crowned  Fuji- 
yama (Fig.  379).  This  volcanic  cone  is 
regarded  by  the  Japanese  as  a  sacred 
mountain  and  is  shown  in  many  of  their 
pictures  and  on  their  decorated  china  and 
other  ware.  In  the  southern  islands  the 
climate  is  warmer  than  in  the  north- 
ern. The  lower  mountain  slopes  are  cov- 
ered with  forests.  In  the  spring  of  the 
year  the  country  is  lovely  with  flowering 
fields  and  the  blossoms  of  trees  and  vines. 

The  rivers  of  Japan  are  all  short 
streams.  They  rise  in  the  mountain 
regions,  and  during  times  of  heavy  rain- 
fall they  are  very  rapid.  The  soil  that 
they  have  brought  from  the  highlands 
in  ages  past  has  been  spread  out  as  flood 
plains  and  coastal  lowlands,  on  which 
most  of  the  people  of  Japan  live. 


232 


ASIA 


¥iu..  3SI).     Ri  I  lint;  silk  from  the  cocoon,  Japan 


Japan  produces  a  vast  amount  of  raw 
silk,  both  for  use  at  home  and  for  export 
(Fig.  38o)_. 

The  minerals  of  Japan  inckide  iron, 
coal,  and  copper.  They  are  of  great 
value  to  the  Japanese,  especially  since 
their  manufacturing  industries  are  de- 
veloping so  rapidly.  The  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  silk  is  growing,  and  for 
this  industry  Japan  imports  much  cotton, 
besides  using  the  little  that  she  raises 
at  home.  Other  important  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  matting  and  the 
making  of  articles  of  bamboo. 

284.  The  People. — The  Japanese  be-  Japan  has  built  many  miles  of  rail- 
long  to  the  yellow  or  Mongolian  race,  as  way,  so  that  trade  with  the  interior  is 
do  also  the  Chinese.  They  are  a  small  easy.  The  foreign  trade  of  Japan  is 
but  active  and  courageous  people.  They  large,  and  in  addition  to  the  Japanese 
love  their  country  and  they  love  beautiful  vessels  steamships  of  many  nations  make 
things.  regular  trips  to  the  ports  of  Japan. 

They  are  especially  artistic  in  their  The  chief  cities  are  Tokyo,  the  capital, 
manufactures,  which  include  fine  por-  and  its  seaport,  Yokohama.  Osaka  is 
celain  and  glass  ware,  inlaid  and  carved  noted  for  its  cotton  manufactures, 
woodwork,  and  silks.  Many  of  these  286.  Chosen. — The  ancient  country  of 
articles  are  so  beautiful  and  so  well  Korea,  now  known  as  Chosen,  on  the 
made  that  they  are  sold  for  large  sums,  mainland  of  Asia,  belongs  to  the  Japanese 
Wonderful  examples  of  Japanese  work  Empire.  The  surface  of  the  country  is 
may  be  seen  in  the  art  miiseums  of  our  irregular  and  in  parts  mountainous.  The 
own  and  other  countries.  soil  is  good  and  the  climate  is  favorable 

For  several  centuries  the  Japanese,  to  agriculture,  which  is  the  chief  industry, 
like  the  Chinese,  would  not  allow  for-  There  are  rich  mineral  deposits.  Under 
eigners  to  come  into  the  country.  Now  the  rule  of  Japan  the  country  is  being 
they  welcome  strangers  and  have  adopted  provided  with  roads  and  railroads.  Sc'oiil 
many  of  the  ways  of  living  and  many  of  is  the  capital  and  tiic  leading  city. 
the  industries  of  other  people  and  coun-  Review  of  Sections  282  to  286.— i.  What  does 
tries.  In  nearly  all  lines  ol  industry  the  Japanese  Empire  include.^  2.  Where  do 
they  have  made  great  |)rogress.  "^''^^  "f  the  Japanese  people  live?     3.  Why  are 

_         ■,     ,       .    .  ,    „.!.  'i-i         I  •    r      their  houses  maile  low  and  light? 

285.  Industries  and  Cities.—  1  he  chief         ^    ,;,„.   ^^.,,^,^   ^^^^-^^-^   ^^.,„.;^   ^,,.^.   ^,,^.   Japanese 

food  croj)  of  Japan  is  rice.       Tea  is  another      famous?     v   What  arc  the  important  food  crops 


valuable  croj),  and  some  harlev,  millet, 
and  cotton  are  raised.  Fishing  is  a 
leading  industry,  and  supplies  a  large 
part  ot   the  food  ol    llic  Japanese  people. 


raised  in  Japan  ?  6.  What  minerals  are  found 
there?  7.  Name  two  important  manufactures. 
S.  What  aid  to  interioi  commerce  have  the  Japa- 
nese constructed  ?  <).  Name  three  important  cities. 
10.   Describe  Chosen. 


ASIATIC   RUSSIA 


233 


ASIATIC   RUSSIA 

Siberia,  Turkestan,  and  other  Russian 
provinces  in  Asia  became  independent 
during  the  World  War,  but  in  1920 
Russian  control  was  partly  restored. 

287.  Siberia. — Siberia  is  larger  than 
Europe.  Its  population,  however,  is  only 
about  as  large  as  that  of  the  state  of  New 
York.  In  the  cold  and  barren  region  of 
the  north  and  in  the  mountainous  region 
of  the  southeast  the  country  can  never 
support  a  large  population.  The  more 
fertile  regions  of  the  central  and  south- 
western part  of  Siberia  are  suitable  for 
farms  and  pastures. 

The  first  Europeans  to  settle  in  Siberia 
were  the  criminals  and  political  prisoners 
sent  from  Russia  to  work  in  the  mines. 
At  that  time  it  was  believed  that  the 
country  was  so  cold  and  barren  that  it 
could  never  be  settled  and  developed  as  a 
farming  country.  It  was  soon  found, 
however,  that  there  were  large  regions 
that  could  be  used  for  grazing  and  agri- 
culture (Fig.  381).  The  government  be- 
gan to  help  Russian  farmers  to 
settle  there.  A  railroad  was 
built  from  Moscow  in  Europe  to 
Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  Asia.  Along  the  line  of  this 
railroad  many  new  settlements 
have  been  started,  and  farming 
and  mining  have  developed  rap- 
idly. Wheat,  oats,  and  rye  are 
raised  in  large  quantities,  and 
much  butter  is  shipped  to  Euro- 
pean markets. 

Siberian  mines  yield  gold, 
iron,  copper,  and  other  minerals. 

Tomsk  and  Irkutsk  are  the 
leading  cities.  Find  them  on 
the  map  (Fig.  357). 


288.  Turkestan. — Russian  Turkestan 
and  other  provinces  east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  are  very  dry.  Grazing  is  the  chief 
industry,  and  most  of  tlie  people  are 
nomads.  In  Russian  Turkestan,  as  in 
Turkey  and  in  Persia,  many  of  the  people 
are  skillful  in  making  rugs  from  the  wool 
of  sheep  and  of  goats. 

289.  Caucasus. — South  of  Russia  in 
Europe  is  Caucasus.  What  sea  is  on 
the  east  ?  What  sea  is  on  the  west  ? 
Cotton,  fruit,  and  grain  are  raised  in 
Caucasus.  Near  Baku  on  the  Caspian 
Sea  is  one  of  the  large  oil-producing 
regions  of  the  world. 

During  the  World  War,  Caucasus  was 
divided  into  several  republics. 

Review  of  Sections  287  to  289. — i.  Of  what 
does  Asiatic  Russia  consist .' 

2.  Compare  the  size  of  Siberia  with  that  of 
Europe.  Of  North  America.  3.  Compare  its 
population  with  that  of  New  York  state.  4.  What 
use  did  Russia  once  make  of  Siberia.'  5.  Where 
have  recent  settlements  been  started  ?  6.  What 
are  the  leading  industries  ?  7.  Where  are  Tomsk 
and  Irkutsk  ? 

8.  What  are  the  industries  of  Turkestan  ?  9. 
What  are  the  industries  of  Caucasus  ? 


381.     Irrigated  vegetable  gardens,  southern  Siberia 


AFRICA 


THE  CONTINENT 

290.  Position. — Africa  is  second  in  size 
among  the  continents.  It  is  about  three 
times  as  large  as  Europe,  but  it  has  a 
much  smaller  population.  The  equator 
crosses  the  continent  nearly  midway  be- 
tween its  northern  and  southern  points. 
The  northern  part  is  larger,  however,  as 
it  has  a  greater  width  east  and  west. 

What  sea  is  north  of  Africa  (Fig. 
384)  .''  What  sea  and  ocean  are  east  of  it .'' 
What  ocean  is  west .'' 

At  the  northeast,  Africa  is  joined  to 
Asia  by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Suez.  At 
the  northwest,  Africa  almost  touches 
southern  Spain,  but  is  separated  from  it 
by  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 


291.  Coast  Line  and  Surface. — The 
coast  line  of  Africa  is  regular,  and  there 
are  few  good  harbors.  This  condition 
delayed  the  exploration  of  the  continent, 
and  still  hinders  commerce. 

A  low  and  narrow  coastal  plain  borders 
most  of  the  continent,  but  it  is  very  hot 
and  unhealthful.  From  the  coastal  plain 
the  surface  rises  rapidly  to  a  great  in- 
terior plateau,  which  covers  most  of  the 
continent.  The  steep  slope  is  so  high 
that  in  places,  as  seen  from  the  ocean, 
it  looks  like  a  range  of  mountains  bor- 
dering the  coast.  There  are,  however, 
only  a  few  mountain  ranges  in  Africa, 
and  they  are  not  equal  in  height  or 
length  to  the  great  ranges  of  Asia  or  of 
America. 


23s 


C.Guardafiil 


236 


SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OF  AFRICA 


237 


The  plateau  surface  is  especially  un- 
even in  the  southern  part  of  the  conti- 
nent, where  it  is  cut  up  by  the  rivers. 
In  the  northwest  are  tlie  Atlas  Moun- 
tains. They  are  the  longest  range  of 
mountains  in  Africa.  There  is  another 
mountain  region  in  eastern  Africa.  It 
extends  from  the  Plateau  of  Abyssinia 
to  the  region  of  lakes  in  the  southeast. 
One  of  the  highest  points  in  this  region  is 
the  fine  volcanic  peak  of  Mt.  Kilimanjaro, 
southeast  of  Lake  Victoria.  Northwest 
of  this  lake  is  the  lofty  range  known  as 
the  Ruwenzori  Mountains. 

292.  Climate  and  Vegetation. — Be- 
cause of  the  position  of  Africa  in  the  hot 
part  of  the  earth,  the  climate  of  much 
of  the  continent  is  such  that  white  men 
cannot  make  their  homes  there.  The 
cooler  parts  of  Africa  are  in  the  north- 
west and  on  the  higher  plateaus  of  the 
south. 

Central  Africa,  near  the  Equator,  has 
a  heavy  rainfall  with  a  dense  forest 
jungle,  like  that  of  the  Amazon  basin 
in  South  America.  South  of  the  forest 
belt,  and  also  along  its  northern  edge, 
are  regions  that  have  rain  only  a  part 
of  the  year.  Trees  grow  along  the  stream 
banks,  but  the  rest  of  the  country  is  a 
region  of  savannas,  or  grasslands. 

Southern  Africa  is  dry,  except  along 
the  eastern  coast,  where  the  winds  from 
the  Indian  Ocean  bring  some  rain. 

Northern  Africa,  except  the  northern 
coast  and  a  narrow  irrigated  strip  in  the 
northeast,  is  a  great  desert.  This  is  the 
Sahara  (Fig.  384).  It  is  larger  than  any 
other  desert  in  the  world.  In  crossing 
it,  caravans  make  their  way  from  one 
oasis  or  spring  to  another.  There  are 
not  many  of  these  oases,  and  during  a 
part  of  the  journey  not  a  tree  or  a  blade 


Fig.  385.     Prevailing  winds  and  rainfall  of  Africa 


of  grass  can  be  seen.  Journeys  across 
the  desert  are  difficult  and  dangerous 
because  of  sand  storms,  because  of  great 
hills  of  sand,  or  dunes,  that  have  been 
piled  up  by  the  winds,  and  because  of 
fierce  native  robber  tribes  that  roam  over 
this  region. 

Travelers  on  the  desert  greatly  dread 
the  sand  storms.  The  wind  blows  with 
violence  and  picks  up  the  sand  from  the 
surface  of  the  desert,  as  winds  in  our 
country  sometimes  pick  up  the  dust 
from  roads  and  fields,  until  the  air  seems 
filled  with  it. 

When  such  a  storm  overtakes  a  cara- 
van, the  camel  drivers  make  the  great 
beasts  kneel.  This  they  usually  do  will- 
ingly, for  they  seem  to  know  what  is 
coming.  They  close  their  eyes  and  push 
their  noses  into  the  sand.  The  men  of 
the  caravan  throw  themselves  face  down 
on  the  desert,  close  their  eyes,  and  cover 
their  heads  with  a  cloth  until  the  storm 
has  passed. 


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AFRICA 

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Vil  JL*"rt  ot  Ouruiaii  Eusl  Afrlcu  to  BlI^Iuiii 
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10"  LAnii1tu4«    EMt  20^fromJ»i»«wkh80" 

238 


RIVERS   AND   ANIMALS   OF   AFRICA 


^39 


Fig.  387.  The  African  elephant  is  the  largest  of  land 
animals.  Its  tusks  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the 
Asiatic  elephant.  They  furnish  most  of  the  world's 
supply  of  ivory 


Along  the  northern  coast, 
especially  in  the  west,  there 
is  enough  rain  to  allow 
the  cultivation  of  grapes, 
olives,  and  other  tropical 
fruits.  In  the  desert  there 
are  some  elevated  regions 
in  vvhich  enough  rain  falls 
to  form  temporary  streams. 
Along  them  grass  springs 
up  ;  but  the  streams  soon 
dwindle  away,  leaving  only 
dry  and  stony  beds. 

293.    Drainage. — As  the 
central    and    southeastern 
parts  of  Africa    have   the 
heaviest  rainfall,  it  is  in  these  regions  that 
lakes  are  found  and  large  rivers  rise. 

The  longest  of  the  African  ri\ers  is  the 
Nile  (Fig.  383).  Its  main  stream  rises  in 
the  region  of  great  lakes,  and  its  chief  trib- 
utary comes  from  the  Plateau  of  Abys- 
sinia. Along  its  banks  is  the  narrow  irri- 
gated region  of  northeast  Africa. 

The  Kongo,  the  second  river  in  length, 
also  rises  in  the  lake  district.  .As  it 
flows  through  a  region  of  abundant  rains 
it   has   many  tributaries.     The   Niger   in 


Fig.  388.     Giraffes,  eighteen  feet 
high,  the  tallest  of  all  animals 


the  west  and   the  Zambezi   in   the  south 
are  large  streams  also  (Fig.  384). 

Where  these  rivers  leave  the  plateau, 
they  are  interrupted  by  great  falls  and 
rapids,  which  have  hindered  trade  with 
the  interior.  Beyond  the  falls,  how- 
ever, the  rivers  of  the  plateau  can  be 
navigated  for  hundreds  of  miles. 

How  many  great  lakes  do  you  find  in 
the  eastern  highlands  ?  Name  the  larg- 
est. Lake  Chad,  south  of  the  Sahara, 
has  no  outlet. 

294.  Animals. — Among  the  wild  ani- 
mals found  in  Africa  are  the  chimpanzee, 
the  gorilla,  the  rhinoceros, 
the  hippopotamus,  the 
elephant  (Fig.  387),  the 
giraffe  (Fig.  388),  and  the 
lion.  There  are  many 
monkeys,  and  many  poi- 
sonous serpents  and  an- 
noying insects.  The  camel 
(Fig.  392)  is  the  chief  beast 
of  l)urden  in  dry  regions. 
Ostriches  are  raised  for 
their  feathers  (Fig.  389). 
How  many  African  animals 
have  you  seen  at  a  circus 
or  at  a  zoological  garden  .'' 


Fig.  389.     Ostriches  on  a  South  African  farm, 
are  cut  from  their  wings  and  tails. 


Plumes 


240 


AFRICA 


295.  People. — Africa  has  often  been 
called  the  Dark  Continent.  One  reason 
is  that  for  many  years  very  little  was 
known  about  it.  Another  reason  is  that 
most  of  the  native  people,  except  those 
who  live  along  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
are  dark-skinned  and  belong  to  the 
negro  or  black  race.  The  white  people 
in  southern  Africa  came  mostly  from 
Europe.  Along  the  northern  coast  there 
are  many  Europeans,  but  most  of  the 
white  people  are  descendants  of  Arabians 
who  settled  there  many  hundred  years  ago. 

The  home  of  the  black  race  is  central 
and  southern  Africa.  It  was  from  this 
region  that  the  negroes  of  our  own  and 
other  countries  first  came.  Most  of  the 
African  natives  are  still  savage  and  ig- 
norant in  sjjite  of  efforts  made  to  educate 
them.  They  wear  little  clothing  and  live 
in  huts  made  of  small  poles  covered  \\'\x\\ 
grass  (Fig.  390)  or  mud.  Where  tiiere  is 
danger  from  enemies  or  wild  animals, 
they  build  their  luits  in  trees  or  protect 
them  by  a  high  wall  made  of  posts. 


In  recent  years  there  has  been  much 
progress.  This  is  because  several  of  the 
nations  of  Europe  have  taken  possession 
of  a  large  part  of  Africa,  and  are  trying 
to  develop  their  territory.  They  are 
building  railroads  (Fig.  391),  working 
the  mines,  and  stocking  the  land  with 
cattle. 

Review  of  Sections  290  to  295. — i.  Near  what 
other  continents  is  Africa  ?  2.  How  is  it  separated 
from  them  .^ 

5.  Describe  the  coast  line  of  Africa.  4.  How 
has  this  delayed  the  development  of  the  continent  ? 
5.  Where  are  the  mountains  of  Africa  ? 

(i.  What  makes  a  great  part  of  Africa  unsuitable 
for  white  people  to  live  in  ?  7.  Where  are  the 
great  y\frican  forests  ?  Why  ?  8.  Where  are  the 
grasslands  .?  9.  What  is  the  Sahara  ?  Where  is 
it  .^  10.  How  are  the  caravans  able  to  cross  the 
great  desert  ? 

II.  Name  four  great  rivers  of  Africa. 
12.  What   parts  of  these  rivers  are  navigalile  ? 

13.  Name  and  describe  some  of  the  wild  ani- 
mals of  Africa. 

14.  Why  is  Africa  often  called  the  Dark 
Continent?  \<^.  What  parts  are  occupied  by 
white  people  ?  16.  Describe  the  homes  of  some 
of  the  native  people.  17.  Why  is  Africa  now 
making  progress  ? 


EGYPT 


241 


COUNTRIES  OF  AFRICA 

296.  Egypt.  -Egypt,  in  north- 
eastern Africa,  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  of  the  civihzed  countries 
of  the  world,  lor  many  cen- 
turies it  was  ruled  by  its  own 
kings,  and  was  a  great  and 
powerful  nation.  For  a  lime  it 
was  part  of  the  Roman  empire. 
Later  it  was  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Turkey,  and  the  people 
were  poor  and  wretched.  Later 
still  it  was  a  British  protectorate, 
and  the  people  were  again  pros- 
perous. Finalh',  ii:  1922,  Egypt 
became  a  separate  kingdom. 

Most  of  Eg\pt  is  a  desert.  But  the 
region  tlirough  which  the  Nile  River  Hows 
is  fertile,  and  here  the  |)()i)ulition  is 
gathered.  Every  year,  when  the  heavy 
rains  fall  on  the  Plateau  of  Abyssinia  and 
in  the  region  of  the  upper  Nile,  the  river 
rises  rapidly  and  floods  its  lower  valley. 
The  muddy  water  irrigates  the  fields  and 
covers  them  with  a  layer  of  rich  soil. 

For  thousands  of  j'ears  the  Egyptians 
depended  upon  this  annual  flooding  of 
the  river  to  grow  their  crops.  When' 
the   British    government  was    in    control 


Fig.  393.     The  Assuan  Dam,  Egypt 


it  greatly  improved  the  methods  of 
irrigation.  A  dam  built  at  Assuan 
holds  the  water  of  the  river  in  a  vast 
artificial  lake  (Fig.  393).  The  stored 
water  is  distributed  over  the  fields  in 
ditches  whenever  it  is  needed,  and  in 
this  way  more  land  is  irrigated  than  was 
l)()ssible  by  the  old  methods.  As  it  is 
always  warm  in  Egypt,  and  as  it  is  easy 
to  control  the  watering  of  the  fields,  it 
is  possible  to  raise  two  or  three  crops  a 
year  on  the  same  land  (Fig.  394). 

Corn,  cotton,  wheat,  and  beans  are 
the  chief  crops.  Most  of  the  cotton, 
like  that  of  India,  is  sent  to  English 
mills  for  manufacture. 

The  Nile  is  navigable  for  hundreds  of 
miles,  and  is  used  both  by  pleasure  craft 
and  by  freight  boats.  The  Suez  Canal 
cuts  through  Egyptian  territory,  and 
connects  the  Red  Sea  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean. This  canal  makes  it  possible 
for  ships  from  North  Atlantic  ports  to 
reach  ports  on  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
oceans  without  sailing  around  the  south- 
ern end  of  Africa. 


'^ras* 


'\ 


t-x^W 


lPll:\ii!itti!ls|l 


m 


I  '\ 


1    .       :i  ■    '■     !■  , 


MBWiWB»^BMi^^M>tWMWWMIiMII»«M3BMBM«gaBaaliyBMHM-ilJL^J'll'iiii-- 

FiR.  3'J4      H;,lm  trees  and  liclil  ot  young  wheat  in  Epypt.     The  land  is  level  and  easily  irrigated 


■>i3 


COUNTRIES  OF  NORTHERN  AFRICA 


243 


Fig.   395.      A  store  in  Cairo  whcrt  Arnli 
shoes  or  slippers  are  sold 


Fig.   3'ii'.      01i(li\l:  from  Egypt, 
now  in  the  city  of  New  York 


Where  the  Nile  en- 
ters the  Mediterranean, 
it  has  built  a  great 
delta.  At  the  head  of 
the  delta  stands  Cairo, 
the  largest  city  of 
Africa.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting city,  with  inhab- 
itants from  the  three 
continents  that  border 
the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  picture  (Fig.  395) 
shows  one  of  the  shops 
in  Cairo.  Notice  how 
different  it  is  from  the 
stores  in  our  cities. 
/Alexandria,  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  the  and  trade  them  for  ivory,  skins,  and  os- 
seaport  of  Egypt.  trich  feathers.     These  they  bring  back  to 

Scattered  through  the  country  are  Tripoli  for  export. 
ruins  of  temples  and  pyramids  built  Tunis  and  Algeria  are  under  French 
thousands  of  years  ago  when  the  Egyp-  control  and  are  prosperous  and  well- 
tians  were  a  powerful  nation.  The  larger  governed  countries.  Wheat,  barley,  oats, 
pyramids  are  made  of  enormous  blocks  corn,  and  tropical  fruits  are  grown.  The 
of  stone,  and  it  must  have  taken  thou-  dates  are  excellent  and  furnish  a  much- 
sands  of  men  many  years  to  build  them,  prized  food.  Much  of  the  wheat  is 
They  were  burial  places  of  ancient  kings,     sent   to  France.     Camels,   horses,  sheep, 

Tall  blocks  of  stone,  called  obelisks  and  goats  are  raised.  There  are  rich 
(Fig.  396),  were  set  up  in  various  places,  mineral  deposits,  especially  in  Algeria. 
Obelisks  and  temple  walls  are  covered  Algiers,  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  the  chief 
with  carved  picture  writings  which  give  port  and  principal  city  of  Algeria.  Tunis 
the  histories  of  the  ancient  kings.  is  the  leading  city  of  Tunis. 

297.  Other  Countries  of  Northern  Morocco  has  a  ruler  of  its  own,  called 
Africa. — Tripoli,  or  Libia,  as  it  is  now  the  Sultan  ;  but  part  of  the  country  \^ 
called,  borders  on  the  Mediterranean  controlled  by  France  and  part  by  Spain. 
and  was  under  the  control  n\'  Turkey  as  shown  by  the  purple  and  brown  colors 
until  it  was  won  in  war  by  the  Italians  on  the  map  (Pig.  3S6).  The  people  are 
in  1912.  Tripoli,  the  chief  town  and  ignorant,  and  many  of  them  are  wild  and 
trading  post,  is  on  the  coast.  The  south-  cruel.  Little  of  the  country  is  under  culti- 
ern  part  of  Libia  is  a  desert,  but  much  vation,  although  the  northern  part  could 
trade  is  carried  on  across  it  by  means  of  be  cultivated.  Grain  and  such  tropical 
camels.  Caravans  of  traders  carry  from  fruits  as  dates,  figs,  and  olives  are  grown 
Tripoli  to  the  Sudan  various  articles  in  abundance, 
manufactured    in    Europe    and    America,         Tangier  is  the  chief  city. 


244 


AFRICA 


Railroads  in  operation 
Proposed  railroads 


Cape  Town 


Review  of  Sections  296 
and  297. — I.  Where  is  Egypt  r 
2.  Under  what  government  is 
it  now?  3.  How  is  the  coun- 
tr\'  irrigated?  4.  What  crops 
are  grown?  5.  Where  is  the 
Suez  Canal? 

6.  Where  is  Cairo  ?  7.  How 
do  the  shops  differ  from  our 
own  ?    8.  Where  is  Alexandria  ? 

9.  \\  hat  are  some  of  the 
ancient  monuments  of  Egypt  ? 
10.   For  what  were  they  used  ? 

II.  What  European  coun- 
try controls  Libia  ?  Tunis 
and      Algeria?         12.     What 

countries     control     Morocco  ?  

13.  What  are  the  chief  crops 

of  Tunis   and   Algeria  ?      14.  Name  the  chief  city 

in  each  of  these  four  countries. 

298.  Abyssinia. — Abyssinia,  in  eastern 
Africa,  is  a  country  of  mountains  and 
plateaus.  The  rainfall  of  this  region 
helps  to  cause  the  floods  of  the  Nile  River. 
Agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  and  mules  are  the  chief 
industries.  There  are  extensive  forests 
in  which  there  are  many  trees  good  for 
lumber.  Some  iron  is  mined  and  worked 
into  spears,  knives,  and  tools. 

299.  Sudan  Countries. — South  of  the 
Sahara,  and  north  of  the  great  forest 
region  of  Africa,  is  the  Sudan.  It  reaches 
from  Abyssinia  and  the  Red  Sea  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  is  the  home  of  many 
negro  tribes. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  Sudan  is  under 
the  control  of  Great  Britain  and  Egypt. 
Khartum  is  the  capital.  A  railroad  now 
extends  from  Cairo  some  distance  south 
of  Khartum.  It  is  |)art  of  a  line  that  will 
finally  connect  Cairowith  Cape  Town,  near 
the  southern  i)oiiir  of  Africa  (Fig.  397). 

Much  <^)f  the  central  and  western  part 
of  the  Sudan  is  under  French  control. 
The  region  along  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  is 


Fig.  397.      Railroads  of  Africa 


divided  into  colonies  con- 
trolled by  France  and 
Great  Britain. 

There  is  some  agricul- 
ture, and  much  of  the 
country  is  used  for  graz- 
ing. The  products  in- 
clude ivory,  hides,  spices, 
rubber,  and  gums.  These 
are  carried  to  the  ports 
on  the  coast,  or  by  cara- 
vans across  the  Sahara 
to  the  north. 

300.  Countries  along 
the  Equator. — Two  of  the 
large  countries  of  the  equatorial  forest 
region  are  Belgian  Kongo  and  French 
Equatorial  Africa.  Their  names  show  to 
what  European  nations  they  belong.  The 
Uganda  Protectorate,  Kenya,  and  Tan- 
ganyika Territory  are  under  British  con- 
trol. 

In  Kenya  and  Uganda  the  lowland 
products  include  rice  and  corn.  The 
products  of  the  highlands  include  most 
of  the  crops  of  the  temperate  parts  of 
our  own  country,  such  as  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  corn,  as  well  as 
many  vegetables.  Coffee  plantations  have 
been  set  out,  and  cotton  and  sugar  are  also 
grown.  Ostrich  and  sheep  farming  are 
profitable.  Ivory  and  hides  are  exi)orted. 
In  Tanganyika  Territory  rubber,  ivory, 
coffee,  and  copra,  the  meat  of  the  coconut, 
are  the  chief  products. 

The  Belgian  Kongo  produces  rubber, 
palm  nuts,  and  palm  oil.  Coffee  and 
cacao  also  are  grown.  Ihere  is  a  con- 
siderable supply  of  ivory.  Valuable  de- 
posits of  gold  .md  C()|)i)tT  JKue  been  found. 
The  products  of  I'rench  Fipiatorial 
Africa  are  almost  the  same  as  those  of 
the  Belgian  Kongo. 


COUNTRIES  OF   CENTRAL  AND  SOUTHERN   AFRICA 


245 


Fig.  398.     Works  at  a  gold  mine,  near  Johanncsbursi 


301.  Countries  of  South  Africa. — At 
the  present  time  South  Africa  is  the  most 
prosperous  part  of  the  continent.  This  is 
because  its  cHmate  is  healthful  and  also 
because  it  has  many  white  settlers.  The 
larger  and  better  portions  of  South  Africa 
are  under  the  control  of  Great  Britain, 
although  many  of  the  settlers  are  Dutch. 
Two  colonies  (colored  light  brown  on  the 
map)  belong  to  Portugal  (Fig.  386). 

The  most  important  divisions  of  South 
Africa,  where  most  of  the  white  settlers 
live,  are  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Transvaal, 
Orange  Free  State,  and  Natal.  These 
four  British  provinces  form  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  which  has  a  government 
much  like  that  of  Canada.  It  controls 
Southwest  Africa. 

In  the  east,  in  the  region  of  heavy  rain- 
fall (Fig.  385),  wheat  and  corn  are  raised. 
Where  the  rainfall  is  slight,  grazing 
is  the  leading  industry. 

Other  industries  in  South  Africa 
are  the  raising  of  ostriches  for  their 
feathers,  and  mining  for  gold  and 
diamonds.  The  Transvaal  is  the 
greatest  gold-mining  region  in  the 
world  (Fig.  398).  The  largest 
diamond  mines  are  at  Kimberley, 
in  the  province  of  Cape  of  (jood 
Hope.     The    manufacturing   indus- 


tries include  the  making  of  flour  and  of 
leather. 

The  trade  of  South  Africa  is  increasing 
more  and  more  as  railroads  are  built 
and  the  country  is  opened  for  settlement. 

Johannesburg  is  the  center  of  the  gold 
mines.  Cape  Town  is  the  chief  port  of 
South  Africa  (Fig.  399). 

302.  The  African  Islands. — Madagas- 
car, off  the  southeast  coast,  is  the  largest 
of  the  African  islands.  It  is  a  colony  of 
France.  The  chief  industries  are  agri- 
culture and  the  raising  of  cattle.  Mada- 
gascar exports  rubber,  cattle,  hides,  and 
gold. 

The  Cape  Verde  Islands,  off  the  north- 
west coast  (Fig.  409),  belong  to  Portugal, 
as  do  also  the  Madeira  Islands  farther 
north.  The  Canary  Islands,  ofip  the  same 
coast,  belong  to  Spain. 

Review  of  Sections  298  to  302. — i.  What 
kind  of  country  is  Ab\  ssinia  ?  2.  What  coun- 
tries control  the  Sudan  ?  What  are  its  exports  ? 
3.  Where  is  Khartum  ?  4.  Tell  about  the  Cape- 
to-Cairo  railroad. 

5.  Name  the  countries  of  equatorial  Africa. 
6.  What  are  their  products  ? 

7.  To  what  country  does  most  of  South  Africa 
belong.''  8.  What  are  the  leading  industries.? 
9.  Name  and  describe  the  chief  cities. 

10.  Where  is  Madagascar  .^  11.  To  what  coun- 
try does  it  belong.'      12.  What  are  its  products? 

13.  Name    some    of    the    other    African    islands. 

14.  To  what  countries  do  they  belong.'' 


9 


2.|(. 


Fifi.  401.     On  the  Pacific  coast  of  Australia 


AUSTRALIA    AND    THE    ISLANDS    OF 
THE    PACIFIC    OCEAN 


303.  Position  and  Government.— Aus- 
tralia is  the  smallest  of  the  seven  conti- 
nents. Although  it  is  sometimes  called 
an  island,  it  is  so  much  larger  than  any 
other  island  in  the  world  that  it  is  better 


from  Europe  or  from  North  America. 
It  lies  far  south  of  Asia  and  is  bordered 
by  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans. 

The  entire  continent  belongs  to  Great 
Britain.     It  is  divided  into  a  number  of 


called  a  continent.     It  is  not  very  much     self-governing  states  which,  together  with 
smaller  than  Europe.  the  island  of  Tasmania,  form  the  Corn- 

Australia  is  nearly  two  thousand  miles     monwealth  of  Australia.     Its  government 
from    Asia,    and    many    thousand    miles     is  somewhat  like  that  of  Canada. 

304.  Physical  Features. — As  the  maps 
(Figs.  400,  403,  406)  show,  there  is  only 
one  extensive  range  of  mountains  in 
Australia.  This  is  called  the  Great  Divid- 
ing Range.  It  is  in  the  eastern  part  and 
borders  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  continent  lies  almost  wholly  in  the 
region  of  the  southeast  winds.  These 
winds  bring  heavy  rains  to  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  mountains  (Fig.  402).  But 
after  crossing  the  mountains  they  reach 
the  interior  of  the  continent  as  drying 
winds  ;  and  the  central  part  of  Australia 
is  a  desert. 

The   maps   show   a   number  of  rivers, 
but  none  of  them  are  large,  except  the 
Murray  and  the  Darling. 
247 


[  ■  -- ;       i  Light  ralaj 
^^  Moderate  nios 
bBs  Moderately  heavy  rains 
^BS  n^Avy  rains 


iJ. 


Prerallinir  winter  wintl& *■  \ 

Prevailing  suirimcr  windtf*"^ 


Fig.  402.     Rainfall  and  prevailing  winds  of  Australia 


AUSTRALIA 


249 


305.  Natives  and  Native  Animals.  — 
When  Australia  was  tirst  settled  by  white 
people,  they  toiiml  the  country  already 
inhabited  by  a  race  of  black  men.  The 
natives  hunted  with  a  curved  piece  of  wood 
called  a  boomerang  (Fig.  404),  and  with 
spears  and  clubs.  The  boomerang  was 
their  favorite  weapon  because  it  could 
be  thrown  in  such  a  way  that  if  it  failed  to 
hit,  it  would  rise  high  in  the  air  and  glide 
back  to  the  one  who  threw  it.  Some 
natives  are  still  living  in  the  interior  of 
the  continent. 

The  native  animals  of  Australia  are 
peculiar.  Several  of  them  have  pouches 
in  their  skins  in  which  to  carry  their 
young.  The  most  interesting  of  these 
animals  is  the  kangaroo.  It  has  long, 
powerful  hind  legs  and  a  powerful  tail 
which  it  uses  in  leaping  over  the  ground 
at  great  speed.  The  fore  legs  are  short 
and  weak. 

306.  Australian  Industries.  —  The  lead- 
ing industries  of  Australia  are  agriculture, 
grazing,  and  mining.     Wheat  is  the  chief 


grain  raised,  and  large  amounts  are  sent 
to  Great  Britain. 

Where  the  rainfall  is  too  light  for 
successful  agriculture,  grazing  is  carried 
on.  There  are  great  sheep  ranches  on 
which  are  millions  of  sheep.  They  furnish 
vast  quantities  of  wool  and  mutton  that 
are  sent  to  Great  Britain  and  to  othei 
countries. 

Large  herds  of  cattle  furnish  beef, 
hides,  and  tallow,  as  well  as  dairy  prod- 
ucts. The  dairy  products  and  the  meat 
are  sent  principally  to  Great  Britain, 
where  they  help  to  feed  the  large  manu- 
facturing population.  The  meat  is 
carried  in  refrigerator  ships,  as  is  the 
meat  sent  from  Argentina. 

The  gold  mines  of  Australia  have 
yielded  many  million  dollars'  worth  of 
gold  and  are  still  productive.  Coal, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  and  tin  also  are  found. 

The  settled  portion  of  the  country 
is  well  supplied  with  railroads.  Great 
steamships  sail  regularly  between  Aus- 
tralia and  other  countries. 


Fig.  404.     Native  with  boomerang 


Fig.  405.     Horse  ranch,  New  South  Wales 


I 


250 


ISLANDS   OF    IHt    PACIFIC  OCEAN 


251 


Fig.  407.     Railroad  station,  Melbourne 


Melbourne  is  the  capital  of  the  state  of 
Victoria  and  also  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia  (Fig.  407).  Sydney  is  the 
capital  of  New  South  Wales  (Fig.  408), 
and  Adelaide  is  the  capital  of  South 
Australia.  All  three  cities  are  seaports. 
•  South  of  Australia  is  the  island  of 
Tasmania,  a  grazing  and  agricultural 
state.      Hobart  is  the  principal  city. 

307.  New  Zealand. — New  Zealand  is  a 
group  of  islands  a  thousand  miles  east  of 
Australia.  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
and  the  scenery  is  wondrously 
beautiful  and  grand.  Some  of 
the  mountains  are  covered  with 
perpetual  snow,  and  great 
glaciers  creep  down  their  sides. 
Some  peaks  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  there  are  gej'sers 
and  hot  springs.  New  Zealand 
has  an  abundance  of  rain  and 
many  rivets.  Agriculture  and 
grazing  are  the  leading  indus- 
tries. Thi?  country  is  a  colony 
of  the  British  Empire. 


Auckland  is  the  chief  city  and 
port. 

308.  Islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean. — Near  Australia,  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  are  thousands  of  islands. 
They  vary  greatly  in  size.  Many 
are  small,  but  a  few  are  large. 
Many  of  them  have  been  built 
up  by  volcanic  action.  Some  of 
the  smaller  islands  are  important 
chiefly  as  coaling  stations.  The 
map  (Fig.  406)  shows  the  countries 
to  which  the  more  important 
islands  belong.  The  largest  of 
these  islands  is  New  Guinea, 
north  of  Australia.  To  what 
countries  does  it  belong .'' 

Review  of  Sections  303  to  308. — i.  How  does 
Australia  rank  in  size  among  the  continents .? 
2.  Compare  it  with  Europe  as  to  size.  3.  To 
what  country  does  it  belong  .? 

4.  Where  is  the  chief  mountain  range  of 
Australia  ?  5.  How  does  this  range  affect  the 
climate  of  the  interior  .' 

6.  Tell   about  the  native   people  of  Australia. 
7.   Describe  the  kangaroo. 

8.  What  are  the  leading  industries  of  Aus- 
tralia ?  9.  Where  do  many  of  the  products  go  ? 
10.  Where  are  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  Ade- 
laide?    II.  Where  is  Tasmania? 

12.  Name  the  wonders  of  New  Zealand. 
13.  What    nations    own    islands    near    Australia? 


©  Valrnline 


Fig.  40S.     Wharves  at  Sydney 


'•2  J 

.9.  S 

p  o 

5  1 

1  ■? 


£    £ 


w       1 
"   2  a.  • 

o  «s : 


I  S.6     s 

111  i 

|i|   g 

JBI 


I 


COMMERCE  OF  OUR  COUNTRY 


309.  The  Need  of  Commerce. — When  railroads  and  Figure  410  the  chief  canals 
we  began  the  study  ot  Geography,  we  and  navigable  rivers  of  our  country  that 
learned  that  all  mankind  must  have  food  are  used  in  this  domestic  commerce.  In 
to  eat,  clothing  to  wear,  and  homes  in  addition,  there  is  an  enormous  commerce 
which  to  live.  We  have  now  learned  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  along  our  coasts 
about  all  the  larger  and  more  important     from  port  to  port. 

parts  of  the  world. 
We  have  found  that 
a  part  of  our  food, 
and  some  of  the  ma- 
terials used  in  our 
clothing  and  in  build- 
ings, come  from  dis- 
tant countries.  How 
do  these  things  get 
into  our  markets  ? 
Read  again  Section 
46. 

310.  Domestic  Com- 
merce.—  Commerce 
between  the  different 
parts  of  a  country  is 
called  domestic  com- 
merce, and  in  the  United  States  it  is  of  One  reason  for  our  great  domestic  corn- 
great  importance.     Figure  147  shows  the     merce  is  that  our  country  is  so  large.     It 

has  many  different  kinds  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate and  minerals,  and  therefore  a  great 
variety  of  productions.  The  people  in 
each  region  produce  the  things  that  can 
be  most  easily  grown  or  made  there,  and 
depend  on  commerce  to  supply  their  other 
needs. 

Wheat  raised  in  the  fields  of  the  North 
Central  States  and  elsewhere  is  carried  to 
Minneapolis,  Chicago,  Buffalo,  or  some 
other  milling  center,  to  be  made  into 
flour  (Fig.  411).  From  these  cities  the 
flour  is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  country. 

2S3 


Fig.  410.     Navigable  rivers  and  canals 


254 


DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 


"l^y 


\ 


^ 


i!^ 


Each  5raall  dol  represents  1000  cattle  'Q^? 
•  Principal  meat  packing  centers.       ^J 


Fig.  412.     Cattle  raising  and  meat  packing 


Fig.  414.     Regions  producing  petroleum  and  natural  gas 


Cattle  raised  on  the  Great  Plains  are 
fattened  and  sent  t-i)  Omaha,  Kansas 
City,  Chicago,  and  other  centers  to  be 
slaughtered  (Fig  412).  The  meat  is  then 
packed  and  sent  to  many  cities,  and  sold 
for  use  as  food. 

There  is  enough  cotton  grown  in  the 
plantations  of  our  southern  states  to 
keep  busy  the  mills  of  both  the  South 
and  the  North,  lii  these  mills  many 
varieties  of  cloth  .irc  inailc,  which  are 
sent  to  .ill  parts  of  the  country  to  be 
sold  (Fig.  413). 

The  wool  and  hides  from  the  sheep 
and  cattle  of  western  ranches  are  made 
into  clothing  and  shoes  in  the  factories 
of  our  northern  states. 


Coal  and  petroleum  and  natural  gas 
(Figs.  179,  414)  are  carried  to  many 
parts  of  the  country,  to  be  used  for  heat 
or  power  in  homes  and  factories,  or  to 
run  steamships  and  railroad  trains.  The 
trees  of  our  forests  are  cut  and  sawed 
into  lumber  and  sent  to  distant  states,  to 
be  used  in  building  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  furniture  and  other  articles  (Fig.  415). 

From  our  iron  mines  (Fig.  416),  ore  is 
taken  to  smelters  and  steel  mills  in 
Chicago,  Pittsburgh,  Birmingham,  Cleve- 
land, and  other  cities  to  be  made  into 
machinery,  building  iron,  engines,  and 
rails.  Mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead, 
and  zinc  furnish  other  metals  for  use  in 
our  industries. 


Cotton  ifftwlnif  nr^n 

•  •Prlnrii     ■ 


Fig.  413.     Coltfjn  yrowing  and  cotton  niiinufacturing 


lleavleit  lorcsu 


Fig.   415.      LumhtT  prothirinj;  regions 


OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


255 


Fig.  416.     Iron-mining  regions 


Fig.  417.     Manufacturing  regions 


The  transportation  of  all  these  products 
gives  work  to  thousands  of  men  on  rail- 
roads and  steamships.  The  manufactur- 
ing of  the  raw  materials  in  great  mills 
and  factories  has  led  to  the  growth  of 
large  cities.  In  the  cities,  millions  of 
people  work,  in  the  mills,  and  millions 
more  are  engaged  in  supplying  the  needs 
of  the  mill  workers  and  others.  Figure 
417  shows  the  great  manufacturing  sec- 
tion of  our  country  and  some  of  the 
smaller  manufacturing  regions. 


Many  of  the  larger  cities,  such  as  New 
York,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Hoston,  St. 
Louis,  Galveston,  and  New  Orleans,  are 
especially  important  as  trade  centers.  To 
them  raw  materials  and  manufactured 
goods  from  our  own  country  and  other 
countries  are  sent  (Figs.  418,  419).  The 
raw  materials  may  come  from  the  rural 
districts  and  the  smaller  towns  near  these 
cities,  or  from  more  distant  places.  The 
manufactured  goods  are  distributed  to 
places  far  and  near. 


Fig.   418.     Docks  where  goods  are  unloaded  from  ships 


Fig.  419.     Freight  yard 


2s6  FOREIGN  COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

311.    Foreign    Commerce. — Our    trade  Our   imports   include   articles  of  food, 

with  other  parts  of  the  world   is  called  raw  materials  for  manufacture,  and  manu- 

foreign    commerce.     Europe    alone    takes  factured  goods.     From  the  West  Indies, 

more  than  three  fourths  of  our  exports.  Mexico,   and   South  America  we   import 

The  greater   part  of  this   trade   is  with  sugar,  coffee,  cacao,  crude  rubber,  wool, 

Great    Britain,    France,    Germany,    Bel-  and     hides.     From    Japan,    China,    and 

gium,  and  the  Netherlands.  India  we  get  tea  and  raw  silk,  and  from 

On   our   own    continent   we    carry   on  other  Asiatic  countries,  beautiful  rugs  and 

much    foreign    trade    with    Canada    and  carpets.     From  Australia  we  get  wool  and 

Mexico.    We  also  have  a  large  trade  with  hides. 

Japan  and  China  in  Asia,  and  with  Brazil,  More  than  half  of  our  total  imports, 

Argentina,  and  Chile,  in  South  America,  however,  come  from  European  countries. 

There  is  some  trade  direct  with  Australia  These  imports  consist   largely  of  manu- 

and  to  a  smaller  extent  with  Africa.  factured    goods,    such    as    fine    woolens, 

To    these    foreign    countries    we    send  silks,  linen  goods,  ribbons,  gloves,  laces, 

breadstuffs,   including   wheat,   corn,    and  and  jewelry. 

flour ;    raw  cotton  for  manufacture  ;    and  Figure  409  shows  the  chief  seaports  of      M 

such    manufactured    articles    as    cotton  the    world,    and    the     important  ocean       ■ 

goods,  iron  and  steel  and  copper  goods,  routes  followed  by  ships  trading  between       ■ 

and  mineral  oils.     (Table  4,  page  260.)  our  own  and  other  countries. 


Fig.  420.     Docks  in  Bi  •  (;oods  are  received  from  abroad  and  where  gooil'li'Mii  ihr.  c  .uniiN  .m 

shipped  ubioa'l.      In  th>    li.icktround  arc  many  large  warehouses  where  goods  are  stored 


A    SHORT    LIST    OF    USEFUL    REFERENCES 


The  reference  readings  listed  below  deal  in  a  fuller 
way  with  topics  discussed  in  the  textbook  itself. 
Many  of  the  books  referred  to  can  be  read  by  the 
children  ;  others  are  suitable  for  readmj;  to  them. 
Page  references  are  not  given,  as  the  index  or  chap- 
ter headings  in  each  book  make  this  unnecessary. 

The  following  abbreviations  are  used  :  American 
Book  Company,  New  "V'ork  (A.  B.  C.) ;  D.  Apple- 
ton  and  Company,  New  ^'ork  (D.  Ap.) ;  E.  P. 
Dutton  &:  Company.  New  York  (Dut.) ;  Educa- 
tional Publishing  Company,  New  York  (E.  P. 
Co.) ;  A.  Elanagan  Company,  Chicago  (Flan.)  ; 
Ginn  and  Company,  Boston  (Ginn) ;  Harper  & 
Brothers,  New  York  (Harp.) ;  D.  C.  Heath  &:  Co., 
Boston  (Heath) ;  Orange  Judd  Company,  New 
York  (Judd) ;  Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston 
(L.  &  S.) ;  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York 
(Mac.) ;  Rand  McNally  &:  Company,  Chicago 
(R.  McN.) ;  Silver,  Burdett  and  Company,  New 
York  (S.  B.). 

General. — "  National  Geographic  Magazine," 
a  monthly  published  by  the  National  Geographic 
Society,  Washington,  D.C.  Each  number  con- 
tains brief  articles  and  many  beautiful  pictures. 

Sections  1-5.  Food,  Clothing,  and  Shelter. — 
Carpenter's  "  How  the  World  is  Fed,"  "  How  the 
World  is  Clothed,"  and  "  How  the  World  is 
Housed  "  (A.  B.  C).  Chamberlain's  "  How 
We  are  Fed,"  "How  We  are  Clothed,"  and 
"  How  We  are  Sheltered  "  (Mac).  "  How  the 
World  is  Fed  "  (National  Geographic  Magazine, 
Volume  XXIX,  Number  One). 

6-9.  Life  in  Other  Lands. — Shaw's  "  Big 
People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands  "  (A.  B. 
C).  Starr's  "Strange  Peoples"  (Heath). 
Youth's  Companion  Series  — "  Strange  Lands 
Near  Home"  (Ginn).  Smith's  "Eskimo  Stories" 
(R.  McN.).  Andrews's  "  Seven  Little  Sisters  " 
(Ginn).  Carpenter's  "Around  the  World  with 
the  Children  "  (A.  B.  C). 

10-45.  The  Great  Industries. — Payne's  "Geo- 
graphical Nature  Studies  "  (A.  B.  C).  Long's 
"  Home  Geography "  (A.  B.  C).  Fairbanks's 
"  Home  Geography  for  Primary  Grades  "  (E.  P. 
Co.).  Rocheleau's  Great  American  Industries — • 
"  Products  of  the  Soil,"  "  Minerals,"  and  "  Manu- 
factures "  (Flan.).  Chase  and  Clow's  "  Stories 
of  Industry,"  Vol.  I  and  Vol.  II  (E.  P.  Co.). 
Youth's  Companion  Series — "  Industries  of  To- 
day "  (Ginn).  BufFum  and  Deaver's  "  Sixty 
Lessons  in  Agriculture  "  (A.  B.  C).  Mann's 
"  Beginnings    in    Agriculture "     (Mac).     Roth's 


"  First  Book  of  Forestry "  (Ginn).  Frye's 
"  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins  "  (Ginn). 

46  54.  Commerce.  —  Chamberlain's  "How 
We  Travel  "  (Mac).  Rocheleau's  Great  Ameri- 
can Industries  —  "Transportation"  (Flan.). 
Brigham's  "  From  Trail  to  Railway  through  the 
Appalachians  "  (Ginn).  Dutton's  "  Trading  and 
Exploring  "  (A.  B.  C).  Payne's  "  Geographical 
Nature  Studies"  (A.  B.  C).  Andrews's  "Stories 
Mother  Nature  Told  her  Children  "  (Ginn). 
Warman's  "  Story  of  the  Railroad  "  (D.  Ap.). 
Braine's  "  Merchant  Ships  and  What  They  Bring 
Us  "  (Dut.). 

55-60.  The  Atmosphere.  ■ — ■  Long's  "  Home 
Geography  "  (A.  B.  C).  Payne's  "  Geographical 
Nature  Studies  "  (A.  B.  C).  Fairbanks's  "  Home 
Geography  for  Primary  Grades  "  (E.  P.  Co.). 
Frye's  "  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins  "  (Ginn). 
Murche's  "  Science  Reader,"  Book  III  (Mac). 

61-65.  Government. — Marriott's  "Uncle  Sam's 
Business "  (Harp.).  Payne's  "  Geographical 
Nature  Studies  "  (A.  B.  C).  Dunn's  "  Com- 
munity and  the  Citizen  "  (Heath). 

66-83.  The  Earth  as  a  Whole.  —  Lucia's 
"  Stories  of  American  Discoverers  for  Little 
Americans "  (A.  B.  C).  Shaw's  "  Discoverers 
and  Explorers  "  (A.  B.  C).  Dunton's  "  Glimpses 
of  the  World  "  (S.  B.).  Fairbanks's  "  Home 
Geography  for  Primary  Grades "  (E.  P.  Co.). 
Long's  "  Home  Geography"  (A.  B.  C). 

84-95.  North  America  and  the  United  States. 
—  Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader  "North 
America  "  (A.  B.  C).  Chamberlain  and  Cham- 
berlain's "  North  America  "  (Mac).  Blaich's 
"  Three  Industrial  Nations  "  (A.  B.  C).  Allen's 
Geographical  and  Industrial  Studies  — "  The 
United  States  "  (Ginn).  King's  "  Picturesque 
Geographical  Readers,"  Second  Book  (L.  &  S.). 
Schwartz's  "  Five  Little  Strangers  "  (A.  B.  C). 
Wilcox's  "  Great  Cities  in  America "  (Mac). 
Carpenter's  "  How  the  World  is  Fed,"  "  How  the 
World  is  Clothed,"  and  "  How  the  World  is 
Housed  "  (A.  B.  C). 

96-109.  The  New  England  States. — Car- 
penter's "  North  America  "  and  other  references 
given  for  Sections  84-95.  Chase  and  Clow's 
"  Stories  of  Industry,"  Vols.  I  and  II  (E.  P.  Co.). 
Rocheleau's  "  Minerals  "  and  "  Products  of  the 
Soil "  (Flan.).  Kipling's  "  Captains  Coura- 
geous "  (story  of  fishing  industry)  (The  Century 
Co.,  New  York).  Cook's  "  Maple  Sugar  and  the 
Sugar  Bush  "  (Judd). 


257 


2s8 


A  SHORT  LIST  OF  USEFUL   REFERENCES 


110-120.  The  Middle  Atlantic  States. — 
Carpenter's  "  North  America  "  and  other  refer- 
ences given  for  Sections  84-95.  Chase  and  Clow's 
"  Stories  of  Industry,"  Vols.  I  and  II  (E.  P.  Co.). 
Rocheleau's  "  Minerals "  (Flan.).  Martin's 
"  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal  "  (D.  Ap.).  Tower's 
"  Story  of  Oil  "  (D.  Ap.).  Smith's  "  Story  of 
Iron  and  Steel  "  (D.  Ap.). 

121-136.  The  South  Atlantic  States  and  South 
Central  States. — Carpenter's  "  North  America  " 
and  other  references  given  for  Sections  84-95. 
Rocheleau's  "  Products  of  the  Soil  "  (Flan.). 
Wilkinson's  "  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant  "  (D. 
Ap.).  Curtis's  "  Story  of  Cotton  "  (Penn  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Philadelphia).  Surface's  "  Story 
of  Sugar  "  (D.  Ap.). 

137-144.  The  North  Central  States.  —  Car- 
penter's "  North  America  "  and  other  references 
given  for  Sections  84-95.  Rocheleau's  "  Products 
of  the  Soil  "  (Flan.).  Myrick's  "  Book  of  Corn  " 
(Judd).  Curtiss's  "Wheat  Culture"  (Judd). 
Edgar's  "  Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat  "  (D.  Ap.). 

I45'i53-  The  Plateau  States.  —  Carpenter's 
"  North  America  "  and  other  references  given  for 
Sections  84-95.  Chase  and  Clow's  "  Stories  of 
Industry,"  Vol.  I  (E.  P.  Co.).  Hough's  "  Story 
of  the  Cowboy  "  (D.  Ap.).  Shinn's  "  Story  of 
the  Mine  "  (D.  Ap.).  Moran's  "  Kwahu,  the  Hopi 
Indian  Boy  "  (A.  B.  C). 

154-162.  The  Pacific  States. — -Carpenter's 
"  North  America  "  and  other  references  given  for 
Sections  84-95.  Chase  and  Clow's  "  Stories  of 
Industry,"  Vol.  I  (E.  P.  Co.).  Mead's  "  Story  of 
G<ild  "  (D.  Ap.).     Tower's  "  Story  of  Oil  "  (D.  Ap.). 

163-169.  Outlying  Possessions  of  the  United 
States. — Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader  "Au.s- 
tralia,  Our  Colonics,  and  Other  Islands  of  the 
Sea"  and  "Around  the  World  with  the  Chil- 
dren" (A.  B.  C).  Krout's  "Alice's  Visit  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands"  (A.  B.  C).  Dunton's  The 
World  and  Its  People—"  Porto  Rico,"  "  Hawaii 
and  Its  People,"  "Story  of  the  Philippines" 
(S.  B.).  Schwartz's  "Five  Little  Strangers" 
(A.  B.  C).  MacClintock's  "The  Philippines" 
(A.  B.  C). 

170-183.  The  Northern  Countries  and  South- 
ern Countries  of  North  America.  —  Carpenter's 
(Juogiaphical  Reader  "North  America"  (A.  B. 
C).  Chamberlain  and  Chamberlain's  "  North 
America  "  (Mac).  Lyde's  "  (kography  of  North 
America  "  (Mac).  Dunton's  The  World  and  Its 
People— "Our  American  Neighbors"  (S.  B.). 
Adams's  "  Conquest  of  the  Tropics  "  (Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,  New  York). 


184-192.  South  America.  —  Carpenter's  Geo- 
graphical Reader  "  South  America  "  (A.  B.  C). 
Chamberlain  and  Chamberlain's  "South  America" 
(Mac).  Dunton's  The  World  and  Its  People^ 
"  South  American  Republics  "  (S.  B.).  Boyce's 
"Illustrated  South  America"  (R.  McN.). 
Keable's  "  Coffee  "  (Sir  Isaac  Pitman  and  Sons, 
London). 

193-256.  Europe.  —  Carpenter's  Geographical 
Reader  "Europe"  and  "Around  the  World  with 
the  Children"  (A.  B.  C).  Chamberlain  and 
Chamberlain's  "Europe"  (Mac).  Lyde's  "Geog- 
raphy of  Europe"  and  "A  Geography  of  the  British 
Isles"  (Mac).  Monroe  and  Buckbee's  "Europe 
and  Its  People"  (Harp.).  Allen's  Geographical 
and  Industrial  Studies — "Europe"  (Ginn).  An- 
drews's "  Seven  Little  Sisters  "  (Ginn).  Youth's 
Companion  Series — "Northern  Europe"  and  "The 
Wide  World  "  (Ginn).  Blaich's  "  Three  Industrial 
Nations"  (A.  B.  C). 

257-289.    Asia.  —  Carpenter's  Geographical 

Reader  "Asia"  and  "Around  the  World  with  the 
Children  "  (A.  B.  C).  Chamberlain  and  Cham- 
berlain's "Asia"  (Mac).  Dunton's  The  World 
and  Its  People— "Life  in  Asia"  (S.  B.).  Miller's 
"Little  People  of  Asia"  (Dut.).  Schwartz's  "Five 
Little  Strangers  "  (A.  B.  C).  Krout's  "  Two  Girls 
in  China  "  (A.  B.  C).  Andrews's  "  Seven  Little 
Sisters"  (Ginn).  Starr's  "Strange  Peoples" 
(Heath).  Youth's  Companion  Series — "  The  Wide 
World,"  "Toward  the  Rising  Sun."  "  Under  Sunny 
Skies"  (Ginn).  Ibbetson's  "Tea"  (Sir  Isaac 
Pitman  and  Sons,  London). 

290-302.  Africa.  —  Carpenter's  Geographical 
Reader  "  Africa  "  and  "  Around  the  World  with  the 
Children  "  (A.  B.  C).  Chamberlain  and  Cham- 
berlain's "Africa"  (Mac).  Schwartz's  "Five 
Little  Strangers"  (A.  B.  C).  Andrews's  "Seven 
Little  Sisters"  (Ginn).  Dunton's  The  World  and 
Its  People — "Views  in  Africa"  (S.  B.).  'V'outh's 
Companion  Series — "  Under  Sunny  Skies  "  (Ginn). 
Starr's  "Strange  Peoples"  (Heath). 

303-308.  Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea. 
— Carpenter's  Cjeographual  Reader  "  Australia, 
Our  Colonies,  and  Other  Islands  of  the  Sea  " 
(A.  B.  C).  Chamberlain  .md  Chamberlain's 
"  Australia  "  (Mac).  Dunton's  The  World  and 
Its  People — "  Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the 
Sea  "  (S.  B.). 

309-311.  Commerce  of  the  United  States.— 
Keller  and  Bishop's  "Commercial  antl  Industrial 
(k-ography  "  (Ginn).  Blaich's  "Three  Industrial 
Nations  "  (A.  B.  C.).  Rocheleau's  "  Geography 
of  Commerce  and  Industry  "  (K.  P.  Co.). 


TABLES 


1.    AREA    AND   POPDLATION   OF   THE    WORLD 


SUMMARY 

I.CML'th  of  partli's  axis  (miles)  7. 1100 

LeiiKth  of  e<niator  (miles)  .  ,  "J-l.^'OO 

Earth's  Surface  (sq.  mi.)      196.900.00} 

Pacific  Ocean  (sq.  mi.) 71.000.000 

Atlantic  Ocean  (sq.  mi.) 34.000,000 

Indian  Ocean  (sq.  mi.)  28,000,000 

Antarctic  Ocean  (sq.  mi.)  2.700,000 

Arctic  Ocean  (sq.  mi.) 4.000,000 

The  Sea  (sq.  mi.) 139.700.000 


North  America 
South  America 

Europe  

Asia 

Africa  

Australia,  etc. 
Antarctic  Cont. 
The  Land. . . 


Sq.  Mn.c0 

9.392.000 

O.S.=)r.,000 

3,St>4,0()<l 

17,073,000 

11.514,000 

3,457,000 

5,000,000 

67.156,000  1 


Population 
146,120,000 

03,S50,000 

4.52,(115,000 

S92,r.09,000 

136,272,000 

8,758,000 

700,230.000 


NORTH    AMERICA 

United  SUtes.  3,08R,5I9  105,711,000 
(States  in  Table  No.  2) 

Alaska 590,884  55,000 

Dom,  of  Canada  3,759,365  8,788,000 

Nova  Scotia  21.428  524,000 

N.  Brunswick  27,985  388,000 

Prince  Edw.  1.  2,184  89,000 

Quebec 706,834  2,361,000 

Ontario 376,722  2.934,000 

Manitoba     .  .  •251,8.32  610,000 

Saskatchewan  251,700  757,000 

Alberta 255,285  588,000 

Brit.  Columbia  355.8.55  525,000 

Territories     .  1,479,000  12,000 

Part  C.l.  Lakes  .30.540      

Newfdiand.  et<-.  49,080  268.000 

Newfoundland  42,730  264,000 

Labrador 6,950  4,000 

Greenland 838,000  14,000 

Mexico   767,300  15,503,000 

Central  America  206,753  5,813,000 

Guatemala  43,640  2,100,000 

Brit.  Honduras  8.600  45.000 

Honduras       .  44,270  6.37,000 

Salvador     .  ..  8.170  1,501,000 

Nicaragua .  .  .  49.5.50  638,000 

Costa  Rica  .  .  18.690  468.000 

Panama 33.300  401,000 

Canal  Zone..  527  23,000 

West  Indies..  91,400  9,947,000 

Cuba     44,000  2,889,000 

Haiti,  Rep.  of  11,070  2,500,000 

Dominican  Rep.        18,750  897,000 

Jamaica 4,840  858,000 

Porto  Rico  3,435  1,300,0(J() 

Bahama  Is.  4,400  .53,000 

Lesser  Antilles  4,<.t05  1,450.000 

Ochcr  islands  112  27,000 

SOUTH    AMERICA 

Draiil 3.300.000  30.645.000 

Argentina  1.084,000  8.699.000 

Paraguay 100.000  1,050,000 

Uruguay 09,000  1,495,000 

Chile 293,000  3.755,000 


.^Q.   Mri.F.s 

Hiilivia 440.000 

Peru 440.000 

Ecuador lls.ooo 

Colombia 46(i,000 

Venezuela.  .  .  .  3(>4.0()0 

C.uinna.Rritish  95,000 

(Miiaiia,nuteli  50,000 

Guiana, French  .30,500 

Falkland  Is.,  etc.  6,570 

EUROPE 

British  Isles.  121.300 

England    .  50,850 

Wales 7,473 

Scotland  .       .  30,405 

Ireland 32,360 

Other  islands  302 

Germany 179,500 

Belgium 11,700 

Netherlands  .  .  12,772 

Dennsark 16,585 

Iceland 39,770 

Norway 124,710 

Sweden 172,928 

Poland 130,000 

Lithuania 30,000 

Latvia 24,000 

Esthonia 19,700 

France 212,832 

Spiiin 192,000 

Portugal 34,264 

Switzerland...  15.956 

Italy 123.000 

Austria 30.700 

Hungary 30,000 

Czechoslovakia  .54,700 

Yugoslavia  .  .  95,000 

Roumania  116,000 

Bulgaria        .    .  40,600 

Albania 11,000 

Greece 50,000 

Russia  in  Eur.  1,800,000 

Finland 130,000 

Arctic  islands.  33,500 

Other  lands    .  .  4,915 

ASIA 

.\rtn<^nia      ,50,000 

Turkey      233,000 

Greek  claim ..  .  12,000 

Syria 80,000 

Mesopotamia  .  140,000 

Palestine 9,500 

Hedjaz 140,000 

Oman 75,000 

Other  Arabia  .  906,000 

Persia 635,000 

Afehanistan  .  .  240.900 

Nepal .54.000 

Indian  Empire  1,856,500 

Ceylon,  etc.  .  .  25.500 
Straits  Settles,  etc.      ,35,600 

Siam    245,000 

East  Indies .     .  788.000 

Philippine  Is.  115,000 

,Java 51,000 

Other  islands  622,000 

2SQ 


F'OPULATION 

.Sq.  Milm 

POPOLATION 

2.800  000 

French      Indo- 

4..5sri,o(io 

China,  etc.  .  . 

256..500 

17,209,000 

2.000.000 

China,  etc.  .  .  . 

4„300,000 

320,650,000 

5.835,000 

China  proper 

1,497,000 

302,110,000 

2.412,000 

Tibet 

814,000 

2,000,000 

298,000 

Siiikiang  .... 

5,50,000 

2,000,000 

113,000 

MonEolia.  .  .  . 

1,076,000 

I.HOO.OOO 

49,000 

Manchuria  .  . 

363,000 

12.740.000 

3,000 

Hongkong .... 

400 

625,000 

Japanese  Empire 

201,300 

77,600,000 

Chosen 

84,2.50 

17,284,000 

47,308,000 

Dairen,  etc. . 

1,200 

601,000 

35,679,000 

Japan 

147,7.50 

55,961,000 

2,207,000 

Other  islands 

28.100 

3,760,000 

4,882,000 

Ru.ssi,a  in  Asia 

6.489.100 

28,330,000 

4,390,000 
150,000 

Siberia 

4  807  000 

11,069,000 
7,202,000 

R.  Turkestan 

641, ,500 

59,8.57,000 

Other  prov.  -  . 

1,040,000 

10,059,000 

7,684,000 

Bokhara 

79,200 

3,000,000 

6,841,000 

Georgia 

25,000 

2,372,000 

3,289,000 

Azerbaijan  .  . . 

35,000 

2,097,000 

95,000 

Other  lands.  .  . 

100,8.30 

2,280,000 

2,646,000 
5,904,000 

AFRICA 

27,788,000 

Egypt 

T-l           J3 

400,000 

13,387,000 

4,160.000 

Libia 

542,000 

525,000 

1,503.0(10 

Tunis 

^^1 

64,600 

2,094,000 

1,750,000 

Algeria 

"^1 

343,900 

5,801,000 

39,210,000 

Morocco 

176,000 

5,000,000 

2O,784,0SO 

Sahara,  remain- 

5,546,000 

ing  part 

1,944,000 

695,000 

3,880.000 

.\by.s.sinia  ,     .  . 

312,000 

8,000,000 

40,070.000 

Anglo-Eg. Sudan 

1,014,400 

3,400,000 

6.131.000 

Fr.  West  .\friea 

704,000 

12,284,000 

7,841,000 

Nigeria,  etc.  .  . 

394,000 

17,300,000 

13,590,000 

Uganda  Prot. 

111,000 

3,072,000 

11,333,000 

Kenva 

247,000 

2,630,000 

17,393,000 

Tanganyika  Ter. 

384,000 

4,000,000 

4,861,000 

Belgian  Kongo, etc.  947,200 

15,400,000 

1,400,000 

Fr.E<iuatorial  Af. 

680,600 

10,000,000 

5,477,000 

Fr.  Kanicnm  . 

160,000 

1,. 500,000 

100,000,000 

3  Portug.  Col'a 

799,700 

7,570,000 

3,335,000 

Union  of  S.  Af. 

792,340 

6,926,000 

C.  of  G.  Hope 

Natal 

277,000 

2,781,000 

928 

34,710 

1,194,000 

Or.  Free  State 

48,340 

028,000 

Transvaal    .  . 

114,290 

2,086,000 

2,000  000 

S.  W.  Africa 

318,000 

237,000 

9,000.000 

Other  Br.  S.  Af. 

722,400 

3,724,000 

1,200.000 

Madagascar. . . 

228,600 

3,545,000 

3,000,000 

Cape  Verde  Is. 

1,475 

150,000 

2,850,000 

Madeira  Is. .  . . 

315 

170,000 

770,000 

Canary  Is 

2,940 

521,000 

600,000 

Other  lands. . . 

541,000 

8,619,000 

500,000 

AUSTRALIA.   ETC. 

2,000.000 

9..500.OO0 

Com.  of  .\ustr. 

2,972,866 

5,437.000 

0,380.000 

Victoria 

87,884 

1,532,000 

5,600,000 

New  S.  Wales 

310,660 

2,100,000 

319,075,000 

Queensland .  . 

668,497 

758,000 

4,568,000 

South  Austr.. 

380,070 

495,000 

2,377,000 

Western  Austr. 

975,920 

332,000 

8,266,000 

Tasmania.  . .  . 

26,215 

214,000 

60,694,000 

Northern  Ter. 

523,620 

4,000 

10,351,000 

New  Zealand  . 

104, ()03 

1,221,000 

35,017,000 

New  Guinea  Gr. 

311,000 

1,000,000 

15,326,000 

Other  Pacific  Is. 

68,850 

1,100.000 

26o 


TABLES 


2.   THE   UNITED   STATES 


Sq.  Miles 

Alabama 51,998 

Arizona 113,956 

Arkansas 53,335 

CalUornia 158,297 

Colorado 103,948 

Connecticut 4,965 

Delaware 2,370 

Dist.  of  Columbia  70 

Florida 58,666 

Georgia 59,265 

Idaho 83,888 

Illinois 56,665 

Indiana 36,354 

Iowa 56,147 

Kansas 82,158 

Kentucky 40,598 

Louisiana 48,506 

Maine 33,040 

Maryland    ..:...  12,327 

Massachusetts.  .  .  8,266 

Michigan 57,980 

Minnesota 84,682 

Mississippi 46,865 

Missouri 69,420 

Montana 146,997 

Nebraska 77,520 

Nevada 110,690 

New  Hampshire. .  9,341 

New  Jersey 8,224 

New  Mexico 122,634 

New  York 49,204 

North  Carolina  . .  54,426 

North  Dakota  . . .  70,837 

Ohio 41,040 

Oklahoma 70,057 

Oregon 96,699 

Pennsj'lvania .  .  . .  45,126 

Rhode  Island 1,248 

South  Carolina. . .  30,989 

South  Dakota 77,615 

Tennessee 42,022 

Texas 265,896 

Utah 84,990 

Vermont 9,504 

Virginia 42,627 

Washington 69,127 

West  Virginia. . . .  24,170 

Wisconsin 56,066 

Wyoming 97,914 

Part  of  the  Great 

L:ikrs 01,730 

Main  Body 3.088.519 


P0PrL.4.TI0N, 

1920 
2,348,174 

334,162 
1,752,204 
3,426,861 

939,629 
1,380,631 

223,003 

437,571 

968,470 
2,895,832 

431,866 
6,485,280 
2,930,390 
2,404,021 
1,769,257 
2,416,630 
1,798,509 

768,014 
1,449,661 
3,852,356 
3,668,412 
2,387,125 
1,790,618 
3,404,055 

548.889 

1,296,372 

77,407 

443,083 
3,155,900 

360,350 

10,385,227 

2,559,123 

646,872 
5,759,394 
2,028,283 

783,389 
8,720,017 

604,397 
1,683,724 

636,547 
2,337,885 
4,663,228 

449,396 

352,428 
2,309,187 
1,356,621 
1,463,701 
2,632,067 

194,402 


106710.620 


Outlying  Territory,  etc. 

Alaska  Tfrrritorj'  .  590,884  55,030 

Hawaii  Territory .  6,449  255,912 

Porto  Rico 3,435  1,299,809 

Virgin    Inlands   of 

the  United 

States  ('17)....  132  20,051 

Philippine  la.  ("18)  115,026  10,350,040 

Tutuiitt,  etc 77  8,056 

C.iinm 210  13,276 

I'ariama        Canal 

Zone 527  22.868 

Soldiers  and  sailors 

Htiilionid  abroad  117,238 

Total  Outlying.  .  .  716  740  12,148.875 

Grand  Total 3,805,269  117,869,496 


Michigan  8.2 ;  New 
Nebraska  6.1 ;  Ohio 
Alabama 


3.     STATES    LEADING    IN    THE    PRODUCTION    OF    CERTAIN    CROPS 

The  vftUie  of  each  cr<tp  for  the  country  as  a  «hok-  is  HMt%.     Tlie  amount  [iroiiiiecii  by  eacii  state, 
aocordiriiT  to  the  census  of  1910,  is  given  as  a  perceutuge  of  the  total  value  foi-  the  country^ 

Apples:  New  York  16  ;  Michigan  7.2;  Pennsylvania  (!."  ;  Missouri  5.9 

Barley:  Minnesota  18.6;  California  18. G;  Wisconsin  13.7;  North  Dakota  12.9; 

.South  Dakota  11.8  ;  Iowa  5.8 
Cherries:    California  13.2;    Pennsylvania  12.6;  Ohio  9.1; 

York  7.5 
Corn:  Illinois  13.8  ;  Iowa  11.7;  Missouri  7.5;  Indiana  6.8 ; 

5.7  ;  Kansas  5.6 
Cotton:  Texas  23.1  ;  Georsia  18;  Mississippi  11.8;  South  Carolina  11.4; 

10.5  :  Arkansas  7.8  ;  North  Carolina  6  ;  Oklalioina  6 
Cottonseed:  Texas  21.4;    Georgia  19.2;    South  Carolina  1M.3;   Mississippi  10  9; 

Alabama  10.0  ;  Arkansas  7.1  ;  North  Carolina  7  ;  Oklahoma  4  8 
Grapefruit:  Florida  92.6  ;  California  6.9 
Grapes  :  California  49.2  ;  New  York  18 

Maple  sugar  :  Vermont  52.2  ;  New  York  24.2  ;  Pennsylvania  7.7 
Oats:  Illinois  14.4;   Iowa  11.8;    Minnesota  8.2;    Wisconsin  6.9;   North  Dakota 

5.8  ;  Ohio  5.6  ;  Nebraska  4.7  ;  Indiana  4.6 
Oranges:  California's.?;  Florida  24.5 

Peaches:  California  15.9;  Georgia  7,6;  Arkansas  5.2 

Peanuts:  North  Carolina  29.4;  Virginia  23.2;  Georgia  13.4;  Florida  11.7:  Ala 
bauia  8.2  :  Texas  5.9 

Pears  :  California  21  ;  New  York  17.9  ;  Michigan  6.8  ;  New  Jersey  3.2 

Plums  and  prunes  :  California  .''>3. 1 ;  Oregon  8.  1 ;  Washington  5.8 

Potatoes:  New  York  12.2;  Pennsylvania  7.2;  Maine  6.1 ;  Michigan  6;  Ohio  6.6  , 
Wisconsin  4.8  ;  Minnesota  4.6 

Rice:  Louisiana  50.3  ;  Texas  38.1;  Arkansas  7.2 

Rye:  Michigan  19.3;  Wisconsin  15.5;  Minnesota  1.3.1 ;  Peniisvlvania  13.1  ;  New 
York  7.7 

Strawberries:  New  York  6.6;  California  6.4  ;  Mis.souri  6.3  ;  Maryland  6;  Michi- 
gan 5.6;  New  Jersey  5.2 

Sugar  beets:  Colorado  30.5  ;  California  21.7  ;  Michigan  20.2;  Utah  9.3 

Sugarcane:  Louisiana  07.2  ;  Georgia  8.6 

Sweet  potatoes:  Georgia  12.3;  North  Carolina  12.2;  Alabama  10.1  ;  Mis.sissippi 
8.7;  A'irginia  7.6  :  South  Carolina  7.4  ;  Louisiana  6.7  ;  New  Jersey  4.3 

Tobacco:  Kentucky  38.2;  North  Carolina  13.3;  Virginia  11.7;   Ohio  8.6;  Ten- 
nessee 5.4 

Wheat:  North  Dakot;i  16.6;  Kan.sasll.3;  Minnesota  8.5;  Nebraska  6.7  ;  South 
Dakota  6.5  ;  Illinois  6.8  ;  Washington  5.3 


4.   CHIEF   EXPORTS   AND   IMPORTS    OF   THE  UNITED 
With  their  Value  in  the  Year  igig 


STATES 


EXI'OUTS 

Agricullurai  implements .'J41,]88,494 

Automnhilrs.  i'arriiige.s,  cars, 

and  Other  vehicles 151,597.682 

Breadstuffs  920,409,1.57 

Chemicals,  drugs,  and  meili- 

cines 1,33,526,488 

Coal  and  coke 125,465,092 

Copper 121,846,326 

Cotton 1,137,3"  1 .252 

Cotton  goods  273,11.5,411 

Klectrical  machinery,  etc...  89,089.711 

Explosives 28,399,707 

Fertilizers 20,909,870 

Fish 126,264,602 

Fruits  and  nut.s 122,678.783 

Furs  and  fur  skins 23,788,599 

Iron  and  steel  anil  manufac- 
tures of  iron  ami  steel 969,273,732 

Leather 218,784,060 

Le:ither  gooils 81. .392,479 

Mc';it  and  dairy  product,s. .  1 ,160,846,625 

Naval  stores 31.456,051 

Oil  cako  and  oil  cake  meal. .  36,036.694 
Oils,  animal  and  vegetable.  .104,491.234 

Oils,  mineral 313,776.385 

Paper  and  paper  goods 86,983.06.'! 

Kuliber  goods 6.3,8(!5.(i55 

TfiliaiT'o   iind   manuf.actures 

of   iHbac.'o .■!06.854.65» 

Wood  :ind  articles  of  wood. .  136.786.063 


iMroitTs 

Animals .$58,037, .361 

Art  works 21,619,446 

l!re;ul.stuffs 50,804,777 

Cacao 57,999,464 

Chemicals,  drugs  and  dyes.  .126.032.265 

Coffee 261,270,106 

Copper  and  manufactures  of  86.270.661 

Cotton 71,880,290 

Cotton  goods 52.649,218 

Fibers  (sisal,  hemp,  etc.)  .. .   81,777,998 

Fillers,  m;inufactarcs  of 95,032,853 

Fish .3.5,760,712 

Fruits  anil  nuts 95.813,190 

Furs  and  f  m-  skins 69,289,909 

Hides  and  .skins 300,610,023 

Iron  and  .steel  and  manufac- 

tiii-es  of  iron  and  steel 26.880,164 

Meat  and  dairy  proilm-i.s 37,368.903 

Oils  of  variou.s  kinds 164.3,56,919 

l';iper  and  paper  goods 53,602,174 

rrei'ious  stones,  etc 105,273,643 

Crude  rubber 221,626,122 

Silk,  raw   .341.886,776 

Silk  manufactures 54,700,816 

Sugar t  ..394.280,434 

Tin   61,761.967 

Tobaci'i. 75, 1  15.564 

Wood  and  articles  of  wood.  .111, .578,988 
Wool 216.764  501 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


261 


6.     POPULATION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   ENGAGED   IN  GAINFUL   OCCUPATIONS.  1910 


The  Number  Engaged  in  Each  Occupation  in  Each  Group  of  States  and  in  the  Whole  Country 


Nkw 
Occri'ATION  Enolanp 

States 

Agriculture  271,i;)4 

Dairy  in<;  and  jirazing   10, 210 

LunriMTiiii; »,28li 

Mining  iiml  quarrving 9,078 

Fisliiii;; ." l-.',447 

Manufacturing l,4;iO,Or).S 

Trade    .•no,187 

Transportation  188,'.t88 

Profe.-isional,  domestic, clerical  (i73,291 


All  occupations    2,aU,080 


MlDI>I.R 

Atlantic 

STATS'* 

7(i7,204 

34,;{42 

12,845 

346, 123 

0,644 

3,335,218 

<.»82,271l 

052,8(;2 

2,071,408 


8,208,885 


South 
Atlantic 

States 

2,00!l,«47 

0,6«i; 

29,018 

95,28.i 

22,731 

964,021 

317.895 

250,840 

884,928 


5,187,729 


South 
Centkal 
States 

4,302,050 

30,709 

39,020 

93,933 

8,009 

888,139 

435,372 

325,040 

984.504 


7,106,770 


North 
Ckntkal 

States 

3,599,312 

44,702 

35,885 

270,209 

9,104 

3,299, 108 

1,229,.5:!7 

899,793 

2,319,100 


11,706,996 


Plateau 

States 

296,090 

55,881 

7,355 

103,700 

183 

216,433 

90,493 

114,:i(l9 

217,421 


1,107,937 


Pacific 
Stai'Kh 

358,342 

30,930 

39,522 

40,372 

9,257 

625,849 

242,907 

199,8:!9 

481,309 


1,934,333 


WlKiI.K 

Uniteu  8tati!« 

12,203,985 

213,412 

173,531 

904,824 

68,276 

10,058,881 

•    3,614,070 

2,037,071 

_  7,032,087_ 

38,107,336 


6.     POPULATION   OF   CITIES   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES   AND   ITS   DEPENDENCIES 
Cities  having  more  than  50,000  People,  together  with  Others  mentioned  in  the  Text. 


Pop.  lOilt  Pop.  UnO 

Akron,  Ohio 208,435       69,007 

Albany,  N.  V 113,344  100,253 

AUentown,  Pa 73,602  61,913 

Altoona,  Pa 60,331  62,127 

AtlanU%  Ga 200,616  154,839 

Atlantic  City,  N.J.  .  50,707  46,150 

Augusta,  Ga 62,548  41,040 

Baltimore,  Md 733,826  5.38,485 

Bayonne,  N.J 76,754  55,645 

Berkeley,  Calif 66,036  40,434 

BeUilehem,  Pa 60,358  12,8;}7 

BiQghamton,  N.Y...  66,800  48,443 

Birniiiiiiham.  Ala.  . .  178.806  132,085 

Boston,  Ma.s.s 748,000  670,685 

Bridgeport,  Conn.  . .  143,.5.55  102,054 

Brockton,  M;uss 60.254  56,878 

Bufialo,  N.Y 506,776  423,716 

Butte,  Mont 41,611  .39,105 

Cambridge,  Mass....  109,094  104,839 

Camden,  N.J 1 10,309  94,538 

Canton,  Ohio 87,091  50,217 

Charleston,  S.C 67,957  58,833 

Chattanooga,  Tenn. .  67,895  44,604 

Chester,  Pa 68,030  38,537 

Chicago,  111 2,701,705  2,185,283 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 401,247  303,591 

Cleveland,  Ohio  ... .  796,841  560,003 

Colonulo  Spr's,  Colo.  30,105  29,078 

Columbus,  Ohio 237,031  181,511 

Covington.  Ky 67,121  53,270 

Dallas,  Tex 158,976  92, 104 

Davenport,  Iowa  . . .  56,727  43,028 

Dayton,  Ohio 152,.5.59  116,-577 

Denver,  Colo 256,491  213,381 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  . .  126,468  80,308 

Detroit,  Mich 993.678  465,700 

Duluth,  Minn 98,917  78,460 

East  Orange,  N.J.  . .  50,710  34,.371 

East  St.  Louis,  III...  66,767  58,-547 

Elizabeth,  N.J 95,783  73,409 

Kl  Pa.so,  Tex 77,560  39,279 

Erie,  Pa 9.3,372  66,-525 

Evaiisville,  Ind 8-5.264  69,647 

Fall  River,  Miuw.  ...  120.485  119,295 

Far„'o,  N.  Dak 21,901  14,331 

Flint,  Mich »1,.599  38.550 

Fort  Wavne,  Inc'..  . .  86,-549  63,933 

Fort  Worth.  Tex 106.482  73.312 

Galveston,  Tex 44.2-55  30.981 

Gary,  Ind .5-5,378  16.802 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  1.37.»i.S4  112.-57I 

Harri-sburg,  Pa 75,917  64,I8(J 

Hartford,  Coon 138,036  U8,U15 


Pop.  VJ-M  Pop.  I'.HO 

Haverhill,  Mass 53,884  44,115 

Iloboken,  N.J 68,166  70,324 

Ilolyoke,  Ma.<« 60,203  57,730 

Honolulu,  Hawaii  ..  83,327  62,183 

Houston,  Tex 138,276  78,800 

Huntington,  W.  \a..  50,177  31,161 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  . .  314,194  233,0-50 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  . .  91,558  57,099 

Jersey  City,  N.J 298,103  267,779 

Johnstown,  Pa 07,327  55,482 

Kansas  City,  Kans..  101,177  82,331 

Kansas  City,  Mo 324,410  248,-381 

Knoxville,  Tenn.  . . .  77,818  36,346 

1/anca.ster,  I'a 53,150  47,227 

L.an.siiig,  Mich.. 57,327  31,229 

Lawrence,  Mass.  . . .  94,270  85,892 

Lincoln,  Nebr 64,948  43,973 

Little  Rock,  Ark. .. .  6-5,142  46,941 

Long  Beach,  Calif.  .  5-5,593  17,809 

Los  Angele.s,  Calif.  .  .576,673  319,198 

Louisville,  Ky 234,891  223,928 

Lowell,  Mass. 112,759  106,294 

Lynn,  Mass 99,148  89,3-36 

Macon,  Ga 52,995  40,665 

Manchester,  N.H.  ..  78,384  70,063 

Manila,  1'.  I.  ('19,  '03)  283,013  219,928 

Meinpliis,  Tenn 162,351  131,105 

Meriden,  Conn 29,867  27,266 

Meridian,  Miss 23,399  23,285 

Milwaukee,  Wis....  457,147  373,857 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  .  380,582  301,408 

Mobile,  Ala 60,777  51,521 

Nashville,  Tenn.  .. .  118,342  110,364 

Newark,  N.J 414,.524  347,409 

New  Bedford,  Mass.  121,217  96,652 

New   Britain,   Conn.  59,316  43,910 

New  Haven,  Conn.  .  162,-537  1-33,005 

New  Orleans,  La. . . .  387,219  339,075 

New  York,  N.Y 5,020,018  4,706,883 

Nia-ara  Falls,  N.Y. .  60,700  30,445 

Norfolk.  Va 116,777  67,462 

Oakland.  Calif 216,261  1-50,174 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla.  91,295  64,205 

Omaha,  Nebr 191.601  124,090 

P:ts.saic,  N.J. 03.841  .54,773 

Paterson,  N.-T 13-5,875  :26.60O 

Pawtucket,  R.I 64.248  61.622 

Peoria.  Ill 76,121  66,960 

Philadelphia,  Pa....  1,823.779  1,649,008 

Phoenix.  Ariz 29.0-53  11.1.34 

Pitt.sburi;ii.  Pa 588.343  53.3,905 

Portland,  .Maine 69,272  68,571 

Portland,  tJregon  . . .  268,288  207,214 


Pop.  1920  Pop.  1910 

Portsmouth,  Va 54,387  -33,190 

Providence,  R.I.  ...  237,595  224,.320 

Pueblo,  Colo 43,060  41,747 

R.icine,  Wis 68,693  38,002 

Readhig,  Pa 107,784  90,071 

Richmond,  Va 171,667  127,628 

Roanoke,  Va 50,842  34,874 

Rochester,  N.Y 296,7-50  218,149 

Rockford,  III 65,051  45,401 

S.icramento,  Calif...  05,908  44,090 

Saginaw,  Mich 01,90.3  50,510 

St.  Jo,sepli,  Mo 77,939  77,403 

St.  Louis,  Mo 772,897  087,029 

St.  Paul,  Minn 234,698  214,744 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah   118,110  92,777 

San  Antonio,  Tex. . .  161,379  96,014 

San  Diego,  Calif 74,683  39,578 

San  Francisco,  Calif.  606,070  410,912 

San  Juan,  P.R 70,707  49,000 

Savannah,  Ga 83,2-52  65,064 

Schenectady,  N.Y...  88,723  72,826 

Scranton,  Pa 137,783  129,867 

Seattle,  Wash 315,312  237,194 

Shreveport,  La 43,874  28,016 

Sioux  Citv,  Iowa  .. .  71,227  47,828 

Sioux  FalLs,  S.  Dak.  25,202  14,094 

Somerville,  Mass.  ..  93,091  77,236 

South  Bend,  Ind 70,983  53,084 

Spokane,  Wash 104,437  104.402 

Springfield,  111 59,183  61.678 

Springfield,  Mass.   . .  129,614  88,926 

Springfield,  Ohio 00,840  40,921 

Superior,  Wis 39,671  40,384 

Syracuse,  N.Y 171,717  1.37,249 

Tacoina,  Wash 90,965  8.3,743 

Tampa,  Fla 51,008  37,782 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.  .  .  66,083  58,157 

Toledo,  Ohio 243,164  168,497 

Topeka,  Kan.s 50,022  43,684 

Trenton,  N.J 119,289  96,816 

Trov,    N.Y 72,013  76,813 

Tul.sa,  Okla 72,075  18,182 

Utica.  N.Y 94,156  74,419 

Wi>.sliington,  D.C.  ..  437,-571  331,069 

Waterbury,  Conn..  .  91,715  73,141 

Wheeling,  W.  Va...  66,208  41,641 

Wichita,  Kans 72,217  52,4-50 

Wilkes-Barre,  Pa...  7.3,83:'.  67,106 

Wilmington,  Del ..  .  110,108  87,411 

Wilmington.  N.  (\  .  33,372  2-5.748 

Worcester,  Ma.ss. .. .  179,7-54  14-5,986 

Yonkers,  N.Y 100,170  79,803 

Youngstown,  Ohio . .  132,358  79,066 


262 


TABLES 


7.   POPULATION   OF   CITIES   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 
Cities  Having  more  than  500,000  People,  together  with  Others  Mentioned  in  the  Text 


Adelaide.  Australia  .  265,000 

Alexandria,  Egypt  .  .  445,000 

Algiers,  Algeria  ....  172,000 

Amiens,  France  ....  93,000 

Amsterdam.  Neth.  . .  642,000 

Antwerp.  Belgium  . .  334,000 

Archangel,  Russia  . .  43,000 

Asuncion,  Paraguay  100,000 

Athens,  Greece 301 ,000 

Auckland,  New  Zealand    158.000 

Bahia,  Brazil    348,000 

Baku,  Azerbaijan  . . .  237,000 

Bangkok.  Siam 630,000 

Barcelona,  Spain ....  682,000 
Barranquilla.  Colombia      66.000 

Basel,  Switeerland  . .  1.35,000 

Batavia,  Java 235,000 

Beirut,  Syria 180,000 

Belfast,  Ireland •  393,000 

Belgrade,  Yugoslavia  120,000 

Benares,  India  199,000 

Bergen,  Norway  ...  91,000 

Berlin,  Cerraany 3,801,000 

Bern,  Switzerland  .  .  104.000 

Birmingham,  England  919.000 

Bogota,  Colombia. . .  144,000 

Bombay,  India 1,173,000 

Bordeaux,  France..  .  267,000 

Bremen.  Germany  .  .  258,000 

Breslau.  Germany. .  .  528,000 

Bru.ssels,  Belgium.  .  .  685,000 

Bucharest.  Houmania  309,000 

Budapest,  Hungary  .  1,185,600 

Buenos  Aires.  Argent.  1.674,000 

Cairo,  Egypt 791.000 

Calais,  France 73,000 

Calcutta.  India 1,263,000 

Callao,  Peru 63,000 

Canton.  China 900,000 

Cape  Town,  S.  Africa  207,000 

Caracas.  Venezuela..  92,000 

Changsha,  China .536,000 

Christiania.  Norway.  258,000 

Cologne,  Germany  "  .  634,000 

Colombo,  Ceylon  .  . .  244,000 

Constantinojjle.  Turk.  1,000,000 

Copenhagen,  Denmark  506,000 

Dairen,  Mancluiria..  97,000 

Dama.scus.  Syria ....  280,000 

Danzig.  Danzig 195,000 

Delhi,  India 303,000 

Dresden,  Germany,.  829,000 

Dublin,  Ireland   ..    .  399,000 

Essen.  (Jermany  ....  439,000 

Florence,  Italy" 242,000 


Foochow,  China    ...  624.000 

Geneva,  Switzerland.  56,000 

Genoa,  Italy 300,000 

Glasgow.  Scotland .. .  1.034.000 

Goteborg,  Sweden.  ..  201,000 
Guatemala.  Guatemala       90,000 

Guayaquil.  Ecuador."  94,000 

Hague,  Netherlands .  360,000 

Halifa.y,  Canada 58,000 

Hamburg,  Germany.  986,000 

Hangcho^v.  China. . .  892,000 

Hankow,  China 1,462,000 

Havana,  Cuba 364,000 

Havre,  France ...  163,000 

Helsingsfors,  Finland  188,000 

Hobart,  Tasmania. . .  52,000 

Hyderabad,  India. . .  404,000 

Iquique,  Chile 48,000 

Irkutsk,  Siberia 130,000 

Jerusalem,  Palestine.  64,000 

Johannesburg,  S.  Af.  284,000 
Khartum,  Ang.-Eg.  Sud.    23,000 

Kief,  Russia 610,000 

Kimberley,  S.  Africa  39,000 

Kingston,  Jamaica  . .  57,000 

Kobe,  Japan 609,000 

Kyoto,  Japan   891 ,000 

La  Paz,  Bolivia 107,000 

Lassa,  Tibet 20,000 

Leeds,  England 468,000 

Leipzi",  Germany . . .  604,000 

Liege,  Belgium 167,000 

Lima,  Peru 175,000 

Lisbon,  Portugal ....  435,000 

Liverpool,  England  . .  808,000 

Lodz,  Poland 462,000 

London,  England  ...  7,476,000 

Lyon,  France  562,000 

Jladras,  India 623,000 

Madrid,  Spain 609,000 

Manaos,  Brazil 81,000 

Manchester,  England  731,000 

Maracaibo,  Venezuela  47,000 

Marseille,  France  . .  .  586,000 

Mekka,  Hedjaz 70,000 

Melbourne,  Australia  784,000 

Mexico,  Me.xico 1,080,000 

Milan,  Italy 66.3,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay  362,000 

Montreal,  Canada. . .  619,000 

Moscow,  Hus.s-ia 1 ,050,000 

Munich,  Germany  .  . .  631,000 

Naples,  Italy    698,000 

Ode.ssa,  Kussia   631,000 

Olicirto,  Portugal 204,000 


'20 
'20 
'16 
'21 
'20 
'10 
'19 
'19 
'21 
'20 
'20 
'20 
'20 
'21 
•17 
'21 
•21 
•19 
'13 
'19 
'21 
'12 
'1.3 
'21 
'14 
'20 
'20 
'18 

'21 
'19 
'19 
'19 
'II 
'21 
'21 
'21 
'21 
'21 
'18 
'13 
'21 
'20 
'21 

'21 
•19 
'16 
'20 
'21 
'20 
'19 
•15 
'12 
'20 


Osaka,  Japan 1,263,000 

Ottawa,  Canada 108,000 

Panama,  Panama  ,. .  61,000 

Para,  Brazil      275,000 

Paris,  France 2,906,000 

Peking.  China 924,000 

Pernambuco.  Brazil.  216,000 

Petrograd,  Russia  1,000,000 
Prague,  Czechoslovakia     676,000 

Quebec,  Canada 95,000 

Quito,  Ecuador 70,000 

Riga,  Latvia 186,000 

Kiode  Janeiro,  Brazil  1,158,000 

Rome,  Italy 591,000 

Rotterdam,  Neth 606,000 

Rouen,  France 124,000 

St.  Etienne,  France  .  168,000 

St.  John,  Canada  . . .  47,000 
St.  Johns,  Newfoundland   34,000 

Salon  ica,  Greece 170,000 

Santiago,  Chile 607,000 

Santos,  Brazil 36,000 

S5o  Paulo,  Brazil  .  . .  504,000 

Sebastopol,  Russia  . .  62,000 

Seoul,  Chosen 247,000 

Shanghai,  China 1,500,000 

ShefBeld,  Englasd  . .  491,000 

Singapore,  Straits  Set.  387,000 

Sofia,  Bulgaria 154,000 

Soochow.  China  ....  600,000 

Stettin,  Germany  . . .  233,000 

Stockholm,  Sweden  .  416,000 

Sydney.  Australia  .  .  898,000 

Tangier.  Morocco  .  . .  60,000 

Teheran,  Pei-sia 220,000 

Tientsin,  China 800,000 

Tiflis.  Georgia 347,000 

Tokyo,  Japan  2,173,000 

Tomsk,  Siberia 117,000 

Toronto,  Canada 522,000 

Trieste,  Italy 230,000 

Tripoli,  LiWa 73,000 

Tunis,  Tunis 162,000 

Turin,  Italy 462,000 

Valencia,  S^iain 2.36,000 

Valparaiso,  Chile  .  . .  182,000 

Vancouver,  Canada .  117,000 

Venice,  Italy 168,000 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico. .  49,000 

Vienna,  Austria 1,842,000 

Vladivostok,  Siberia.  91,000 

Warsaw,  Poland  ....  931,000 

Winnipeg.  Canada  . .  179,000 

Yokohama.  .lapan  .  .  423,000 

Zurich,  Switzerland  .  206,000 


('20) 
('21) 
('17) 
('13) 
('21) 

('13) 
(•19) 
C21) 
('21) 
(•16) 
('20) 
('20) 
('16) 
(•19) 

('21; 
('2r 
('21) 
('18^ 
('20^ 
('20$ 
('11) 
('19) 
('10) 
('20) 
('20) 
('21) 
('19) 
('20) 
('20) 
('19) 
('20) 
('21) 
('19) 
('20) 
('15) 
('13) 
('20) 
('13) 
('21) 
('10) 

('11) 
('15) 
('18) 
('20) 
('21) 
(•16) 
(•10) 
('20) 

('11) 
(21) 
('21) 
(•20) 
('20) 


8    GREAT   RIVERS   AND  THEIR   BASINS 


BlTCK 


Arka  or 

Barin, 

Sii.  Mn.Kn 

2,320,000 
780,000 
2.30.000 
290.000 
320,000 


Amazon  ....... 

Amur 

Colorado 

'.'olnrnbia 

Danube     

Dnieper 197,000 

EuphralCK    490,000 

Ganges.  Brahmapnira      600,000 

Hwang    .'lOfl.OOO 

Indu.t 360,000 

Irrawaddy 1 80,(KK) 

Kongo  1,600,000 


1.0N0E8T 
Strkam, 

MlI.K!* 

3,500 
2,700 
1 ,000 
1,400 
1,800 
1,.300 
2.000 
1,800 
2,800 
1.900 
1,2(!0 
2,800 


r.i\  RR 

Lena ...    

M.ackenzie 

Magdalena  

Mekong . . . 

Mississippi-Missouri  . 

Murray   

Nelson-Saskatchewan 

Niger  

Nile   

Ob 

Orange 

Orinoco 


Arra  op 
Rasin. 

Sy.   M11.R8 

900,000 

680,000 

90,000 

280,000 

1,2.50,000 

360,000 

470.000 

1,000,000 

1.. 30(1. 000 

1,1011. (ton 

270,000 

426,000 


LoNdKST 

Stream, 

M  I  l.Krt 

2,800 
2,100 
1,100 
2,600 
4,200 
1,100 
1 ,900 
2,600 
3,700 
3,(H)0 
1 ,200 
1,600 


IllVKR 


Arra  of 

ItARIN, 

Sg,   Mil. KM 
1,160,000 
27,000 
63, '265 
.•?8,180 


Plata 

Po 

Rhine 

Rhone  

Rio  Grande 230,000 

St.  Lawrence 605,000 

Silo  Francisco 210,000 

Volga .  .  r.90,000 

Yangtze (i'.io.OOO 

Yenisei.      1.. 50(1, 000 

Yukon ;!80,000 

Zambezi 680,000 


I,ON<)K81 

Stkrau, 
Mii.rs 

2,500 

460 

709 

447 

1,800 

2,100 

1,800 

2,300 

3,100 

3,000 

1,865 

2,200 


INDl'X    AND     PRONUNCIATIONS 

MAKKINOS  '  fi  ill  late,  ft  in  fftt.  &  in  oAre,  ii  in  fi'ir,  li  in  last,  a  in  fall,  t)  In  8ofi>,  an  in  author  ,  c  in  can  ;  8  in 
me,  6  in  return.  6  in  nift,  bCrry,  «•  in  voll,  r  in  tf-rni ;  j;  ">  Kp™,  K  i"  K^t ,  i  in  fine,  I  in  tin.  ■  in  |>oIic<- ,  n  =  ng,  N  = 
iiK  in  lis  clt'eit  (n;i.s:il)  on  llic  pivct'iling  vnwi  I,  hut  Is  nut  itself  soi.ndeil  ;  5  In  iiotr.  6  ii.  6bcy.  "  in  niSt.  o  in  soft,  0  in 
ror,  u  in  son,  9  in  \v9lf,  u  in  (lu,  <Ti>  in  school,  00  In  %vdbl  ;  §  =  7. :  th  in  tliine :  u  In  tfinc.  n  in  nOt,  A  in  burn,  u  in 
full,  u  in  rude  (  =  o),  uu  =  wa,  ue  =  we  ;  $  =  g/. ;  y  in  my,  J  in  hymn.     Jtalic  letters  are  silent. 


absolute  monarchy  r>4 
/\b-ys-slii'i-ii  244 
Aconcagua      ( ii^kftn-ka'gwii) 

lt!6 
Ad'e-laide  251 
Ad-i-ron'(i;ick8  100,  102 
A-dri-at'ic  Sea  206 
Af-j,''''"'-'-"^'''n'  221 
Af'ri-c;i  236,  01 
agiicultiinil  implements  131 
agriculture  1,  0,  14-1(1 

in  dry  regions  137 
air  40 

airplane  40,  41 
Ak'ron  131 
Al-a-bii'ma  lir.-122 
A-las'ka  147-14i>,  76 
Al-ba'ni-j  20U 
Albany  (al'ba-nl)  106 
Al-bBr'ta  16(5' 
A-lfu'tian     (-shan)     Islands 

147 
Al-ej-an'dri-A  243 
Al-t;e'ri-a  243 
Al-girTj'"243 
al-pac'a  170 
Alps  181,  183 
Am'a-zon  Hiver  169 
Amiens  (a-my'ts')  198 
Am'ster-dam  193 
An'dSj  107,  174,  170 
Ant-arc'tic  Circle  03 
Antarctic  Continent  01 
Antarctic  Ocean  01 
an'thra-citf  99.  102 
Ant'werp  192 
Ap'en-nine?  181,  203 
Ap-pa-lJcli'i-an  Mountains  75 
AppaLicliian  Plateau  99,  115 
A-ra'l)i-a  220,  218 
Aral  (i1r"'an.  Lake  216 
AreA'an'pef  211 
Arc'tic  01,  03 
Ar-gen-ti'na  173,  176,  256 
Arizona  (ftr-i-z6'na)  135-140 
Ar'kan-SflS  115-122 
Ar-me'ni-ii  H-O 
A.sia  (a'sha)  21.3,  0] 
as'phalt  103.  38,  53 
Assuan  (as-swiin')  241 
Asuncion  (a-soon-syon")  174 
Ath'enj  209 
At-lan'la  113 
At-lan'tic  Ocean  01 
Ai'las  .MountaiiLs  237 
at'inos-ptiere  4(5-49 
Auck'land  251 
Aus-tra'li-A  247,61.  266 
Aus'tri-ij  205-206 
automobiles  131 
axis  57,  03 
Ba-hA'm,i,s  162,  103 
Bi^Ai'ii  173 
Baku'  210,  233 
Bal'kan  countries  208 
Balkan  Teninsula  181 
Bftl'ticSea  181,  211 


Hiirii-more  11:!,  112 

Hii-lij-ihls-tan'  223 

bananas  Ili2 

Bang-kok'  220 

Hanks  of  New'found-land  96 

Har-ce-lo'na  2U() 

I!ar-ran-(|uiria  (-kt'l'ya)  177 

Milr'n'ii  Lands  li'iO 

liariicr  beaclius  109 

Ha'fel  202 

b.asin  of  a  river  28 

Ba-ta'vi-a  226 

bay  34,  30 

beaches  33,  100 

Hi'irut  (ba'roof)  220 

Bel-fast'  189 

Hcl'tri-an  Kongo  244 

liel'j:i-um  192,  250 

Bel-grade'  208 

Ben-ii're?  224 

Ben-gal',  Bay  of  223 

Ber'gen  195 

Be'i'ing  Strait  147 

Hei-k'sbiiv  Hills  91,  100 

Ber-lin'  191 

Bern  202 

Hir'niing-/iam.  Ala.  121,  2.J4 

Birmingham,  Knj;.  180 

bi-tii'mi-nous  coal  102 

Black  Hills  128.  1:50 

black  race  89,  240 

Blue  Kidge  110 

boats  4 1 

Bo-go-tii'  177 

Bo-be'mi-a  200 

Bo-liv'i-a  170 

Bom-bay'  224 

boom'er-anc  249 

Bordeaux  {b6r-do')  198 

Bor'ne-o  22() 

Bos'po-rus  209 

BSs'ton  97,  93,  90,  255 

boundaries  09,  81 

BiaA-ma-pu'tra  River  223 

Bra-zir  171.  17(5,  250 

Bra.zil'ian  llifihlands  109 

breakwaters  42 

Brfm'en  191 

bricks  4 

Bridge'port  93.  94 

Brit'ish  Co-luni'bi-ii  150 

British  Kast  Africa  244 

British  Empire  189 

British  Hon-du'ras  101-102 

British  I.sles  185 

Brock'ton  93 

Bmnx  104 

Br.x)k'lvn  104,  105 

Brus'sels  192 

Bu-eAa-rest'  209 

Bu'da-pest  206 

Buenos  Aires  (bwa'nOs  i'ras^ 

174 
Buf'fa-lo  106,  120,  253 
buildings  4 

building  stone  6,  24,  96 
Bal-gil'ri-j  209 


b«ovs  44 

Biir'ma  223 

liuUe  l:i8 

butter  making  2 

cable  45 

ca-cii'o  102,  173,  177 

Cairo  (ki'ro)  243,  235,  244 

CiXITu.s-  198 

Cal-cut'ta  224 

Cal-i-fSr'ni-a  141-146 

Callao  (kiil-ya'o)  170 

Cani'den  107 

camels  7,  2.39 

Can'a-da  155.  71,  74,  2.50 

canals  41,  263 

in  Holland  193 
Canal  Zone  147,  149 
Ca-na'ry  Islands  245 
Can'cer,  Tropic  of  63,  04 
canning  factories  1:50,  141 
Can-ton',  China  230 
can'yons  20,  28 
cape,  defined  3:5 
Cape  Coil  ('anal  97 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  245 
Cape  Town  244,  245 
Cape  Verde  Islands  245 
capital  51 
Capitol  51 

Cap'ri-corn,  Tropic  of  03,  04 
Ca-ra'ciis  177 
ciir'a-van  7 

car'di-nal  directions  59 
Car-ib-he'an  Sea  149 
Car-pil'llu-an  Mountains  181, 

206 
Car-rii'rii  204 
cas-cade',  defined  28 
Cascade  Hange  141 
Cas'pi-an  Sea  215 
Cats'kill  Mountains  99 
cattle  18,  20,  21 
in  Argentina  174 
in  United  States  120,  128, 

2.54  (map) 
Cau'ca-sus  2:53 
cement  5 

Central  A-mer'i-ca  101-102 
Cey-lon'  225 
Chad,  Lake  239 
Charles'ton.  S.C.  113 
Cliat-la-noo'ga  121 
Ches'a-peake  Bay  112 
Chicago  (shi-ka'go)  131-1.32, 

127,  128.  253,  254,  255 
Chi'le  174-170.  250 
Chi'na  227-2:50,  218,250 
Chi-neje'  Republic  227-230 
choc'o-late  162 
Cho's6n  232 
Chris-ti-a'ni-a  195 
cin-efto'na  170 
Cin-cin-nat'i  1.32 
cities  .37-38.  43 

government  .50,  .53 
Cleve'land  129,  1.32,  254 
clifts  20,  32 


climate  06 
clothing  3-8 
clouds  48 
coal  24,  26 

in  Great  Britain  186 

in    the   United   States   84, 
102  (niaiO 
coasl'al  [ilain  99 
Coast  Raiifics  141 
co'co-nut  palms  102 
cod  fisheries  34,  96 
coffee  171,  3 
cold  regions  05 

life  in  5 
Co-lo(?ne'  191 
Co-loni'bi-a  177 
(•o-loin'bo225 
Co-Ion'  102 
Col-o-rii'do  1:55-140 
Colorado  River  77.  139 
Colorado  Sjjrings  140 
C6l-os-se'uni  204 
Co-luni'bi-a     River    77.     141, 

142 
Co-luin'bus  131 
Cohiinlius.  Christopher  56 
commerce'  1.  :l7-45,  2.53 
Com'mon-wealth  of  Australia 

247 
coin 'pass  59 
con'crete  6 
conden.salion  48 
Con'gress  52 
Con-iiect'i-cut  91-97 
('on-stan-li-n5'ple  209 
con'ti-nents  33,  55.  01 
Co-pen-ha'iren  194 
cojiper  24,  26 

in    the    United   States  84, 
129.   1.38 
cop'ra  244 
Cordilleras      (kdr-dil-ya'r4z) 

75 
cork  199 

corn  12(i,  123,  170,  127  (map) 
Cos'ta  Ri'ca  161-102 
cotton    3,    110    (map;.    Ill, 
119,  2.54 

manufacture  93,  112.  187, 
2.54  (map) 
cottonseed  oil  121-122 
Cov'ing-ton  120 
cowboys  120 
cows  2,  18 
crater  151 

cre-vAsse'  in  a  glacier  179 
Cu'ba  102,  163 
Cum'ber-land  Plateau  116 
Czech'o-.sl6-vak'i-,a     (chek'-, 

200 
Czeclis  (clicks)  206 
Dai'rtMi'  231 
dai'rv-ing  18,  20,  102 
Dal'hus  121 
l>.a-ma.s'cus  220 
Danes  1.59 
Dan'ube  River  183,  206 


263 


264 


INDEX  AND   PRONUNCIATIONS 


Danzig  (dan'tsiK)  196 
day  57,  62,  63,  65 
Dav'ton  131 
Dead  Sea  220 
degrees,  defined  60 
Dek'kan  Plateau  223,  224 
Del'a-ware  109-113 
Delaware  River  101 
Del'fii  224 
delta  12 
Den'mark  194 
Den'ver  138 
dej'erts  7,  137 
Des  Moines'  129 
De-troit'  131 
dew  49 
dikes  192,  193 
directions  57-59 

on  maps  68 
dlr'i-gi-ble  40 
District  of  Co-lum'bi-a  1 14 
divide  13 
docks  42 
dogs,  Eskimo  6 
domestic  commerce  253 
Do-min'ion  of  Can'a-da  155, 

71,  74,  256 
Do'ver,  Strait  of  186 
dry  fanning  137 
Dub'lin  189 
Du-luth'  127,  129 
Du'ma211 
Dutch  192 
earth,  as  a  whole  55 

form  of  55 

revolution  of  63 

rotation  of  57 

size  of  55 
earthquakes  231 
east,  defined  57,  58,  59 
Kastem  Hemisphere  01 
East  St.  Lou'is  132 
Ec'ua-dor  176 
E'gypt  241-242 
El'bS  River  182 
electric  railway  39 
elephant  217,  239 
elevated  railways  38 
empire  54 

England  (In'gland)  185-189 
Eng'lish  Channel  185 
E-qua'tor  57 

e-qua-to'ri-al  regions  61,  62 
E'lie  107 
Erie,  Lake  77 
Erie  Barge  Canal  100,  103 
Es'ki-mO}  5-6,  159 
Es'sen  191 
Es-thO'ni-a  196 
Et'na,  Mount  204 
Eu-\>hTA'l^  River  220 
A'iir-a'sia  (-hIuI)  179 
i'Q'rope  179,  6"l 
Ev'ans-ville  129,  131 
e-vap-o-ra'lioii  48 
Ev'er-est,  Mount  215 
express  trains  40 
faclorleH.  location  of  30 
Kair'bankH  118 
Fall  Line  109 
Fall  River  93 
Far'go  133 
farming  1,  9,  14-16 

dry  fanning  137 
Far'iV  iHhiiitlrt  104 
ferryboats  42 


FIn'land  211 

fiords  (fyordz)  147.  194,  196 

fishing  30.  31,  34,  84,  96 

Fiume  (fyoo'ma)  208 

flax  184,  192 

flood  plains  12 

flv)ods,  effect  of  forests  23 

Flor'ence  206 

Flor'i-dil  109-113 

flour  2,  130,  253 

fogs  49 

food  2,  5,  7,  8 

foreign  commerce  266 

forest  fires  22 

forest  reserves  136,  137 

forests  21-23 

iu  Gennany  190 

in  United  Slates  95,  136- 
137,  254  (map) 
Fort  Waj/ne  131 
Fort  Worth  121 
France  197,  256 
freight  40,  41 

French  Equatorial  Africa  244 
French  Indo-China  226 
Frig'id  Zones  63,  05 
frost  49 

fruits,  in  California  143 
Fu'ji-ya'ma  231 
Gal'ves-ton  122,  256 
Gan'gej  River  223 
gang  plow  16 
gardens  15 
Ga-roniis'  River  197 
gasoline  102 
gelatin  21 

Geneva  (je-ne'va)  202 
Genoa  (jfn'o-a)  205 
ge-og'ra-phy,  defined  1 
Ge6r'gi-A  109-113 
Georgia,  republic  in  western 

Asia  216 
Ger'ma-ny  190,  256 
gey'sei-}  139 
(i/iats  223 

Gibraltar  (ji-brol'ter)  200 
Gibraltar,  Strait  of  235 
gi-raf/fi'  239 

Glacier  National  Park  139 
glaciere   (gla'.sh6rz)   70,   147, 
183 

ancient  92,  101,  126 
Glas'goio  186,  189 
(ilouces'ter  96 
glue  21 
gold  24 

in  Transvaal  245 

in   United  States   84,   1.38, 
144 
gorge,  defined  28 
(Joteborg  (yfi-le-li6r'y')  195 
government  60-64 
governor  61 
Grand  Rapids  128 
granite  24 
grapes  143,  197 
grazing  20-21.  120,  128 

in  Swilzirlanil  201 
(ireal     Appalachian     Vallev 

no,  115 
Great  B.iHin  186 
Great    Itrilain    (brlt"n)    185. 
lH9.2.'i6 

Great  <'.ilifi,rriia  Valley  141 
(Jreal  Dividing  Kango  247 
Greater  An-lil'le9  162 


Great  Lakes  77 
Great  Salt  Lake  136 
Greece  209 
Green'land  159,  76 
Green  Mountains  91 
Grej/'lock,  Mount  91 
ground  water  27 
groups  of  states  89 
Guiim  153 

Gua-te-ma'la  161-162 
Guayaquil  (gvvi-a-kel')  177 
Guiana  (JJe-a'na)  177 
Guiana  Highlands  169 
Guinea  (gin'i).  Gulf  of  244 
gulf,  defined  34 
Gulf  Plains  115 
Hague,  the  193 
Hai'ti  162,  163 
Hal'i-fax  157 
Ham 'burg  191 
Hiiu'koto'  230 
harbors  42,  44 
H,1r'ris-burg  107 
Hart'ford  94 
harvesting  machines  16 
Ha-van'A  163 
H.a'ver-Aill  93 
Havre  (hii'ver)  198 
Ha-wai'i  151 
Ha-waT'ian  Islands  151 
Hedj-az'  220 
Hel-sing-fftrs'  211 
hem'  i-spheres  58 
Hi'lo  152 

Hi-nia'lii-ya  Mts.  215,  223 
Hin'du?  224,  226 
Ho'bart  261 
hogs  128 
Hol'land  192 
Holy  Land  ■2f20 
Hol'yoke  94 
Hon-du'ras  161-162 
Hong'kong'  230 
Ho-no-lu'lu  152 
Hood,  Mt.  142 
hops  190 
ho-ri'zon  55 
hot  regions  66 

life  in  7 
lli.us'ton  122 

llud'son  River  77,  100,  103 
lluiison's  Hay  Company  157 
llug'li  River  224 
llui_i'g.a-ry  20.5-207 
llu'ron,  l.ake  77 
hur'ri-canes  162 
Hwang  River  228 
l-be'ri-an  Peninsula  181,  199 
icebergs  76 
Ice'land  194 
IMa-ho  135-140 
ll-li-noi.s'  123-1.T2 
In'cis  169 

In'di-a  223-225,  217,  218 
In-di-an'il  123-131 
In-di-an-ilp'o-lis  131 
In'di-an  Ocean  61 
Indians  8.-|,  88,  161,  169 
lnMo-('hi'Ma226 
industrial     regions     of     the 

United  Stales  81 
industry,  delini'd  9 
inlet  of  11.  lake  31 
Po-wii  123-1.33 
Iquique  (e-UO'ka)  176 

Irc'land  185.189 


Irkutsk  (Ir-kootsk')  233 
iron  24,  25 
in   the    United   States  84. 

121,  129,  254  (map) 
irrigation  118,  137 
in  Asia  219,  228 
islands  33 
isjA'mus  33 
Italian   (i-tal'yan)  Peninsula 

181 
It'a-ly  203-205 
ivory  239 
Jack'son-ville  113 
J.affa  (yii'fa)  220 
jilg'uiir  170 
Ja-mai'ca  162,  163 
Ja^pan'  231-232,  218,  256 
Ja'va  226 
Je-ru'sa-lem  220 
Johannesburg        (y6-han'§s- 

biirg)  246 
Jor'dan  River  220 
Ju-go-slii'vi-a  (yoo-)  208 
Juneau  (joo'no)  148 
jungle  61,  217 
Ju'ra  Mountains  201 
Kam-chat'ka  231 
kan-ga-roo'  249 
Kan'jas  123-133 
Kansas  City  128,  133,  254 
Ken-tuck 'y  116-122 
Ken'ya  244 
Ke'o-kuk,  133 
Kh.ar-t.uni'  244 
Kief  (ke'yef)  211 
Kil-i-miin-jii'ro,  Mt.  237 
Kim'ber-ley  246 
kingdom  54 

Kings'ton,  Jamaica  163 
Klon'dike  district  148,  156 
A'nox'ville  121 
Kon'go  River  239 
Ko-re'a  232 
Lab-ra-d6r'  157 
Lii  Guni'rii  177 
Lake  Plains  100 
lakes  31 

salt  136 
Lan'sing  131 
Lii  Paz  (piis)  177 
Liis'sii  227 
lat'i-tude  60 
Lilt'vi-a  196 
lii'va  151 
Law'rence  93 
lead  84 

Leud'ville  1.38 
leather  21,  93 
Lelj'a-iion  Mountains  220 
Leeds  \><1 
leg'is-la-ture  51 
Leipzig  (lip'.sik)  191 
Lesser  An-lil'les  162 
lev'eej  1 18 
Lib'i-a  243 
Liege"(le-ezli')  192 
liglilhou.ses  43 
Li'mii,  Peru  176 
linen  184,  180 
linseed  oil  127 
Lij'boM  200 
Lilh-ft-a'ni-ii  196 
Lii  tie  Hoek~122 
Llv'er-pnol  la7 
l/ii'iiia^  170 
lia'no.s  169,  177 


INDEX  AND   PRONUNCIATIONS 


265 


LOdzlOe 
lop  4,  22 
Lun'doii  1><7-1S.) 
Loiij;  Island  0!>,  101,  107 
16n'(ri-tuile,  detiiU'd  00 
LOs  Aii'i;<'l-fe  H''> 
Loit-V-ji-iln'ii  115-1^2 
Lou'is-viUe  120 

Lower  California  100 
lumbenni;4,  21-23,  121,  U3, 

254  (map) 
Lii-zon'  li')2 
I.vnn  113 

Lyon  (le-6s')  198 
Mc-Kin'ley,  Mt.  147 
Mad-a-gas'car  245 
Ma-df  i'l-j  Islands  245 
Ma-drid'  200 
Miig-dii-le'nii  Kiver  177 
Ma-j;el'lan,  t'XiUorer  60 
Maei'llan,  Strait  of  167 
mails  44 
Maine  i»l-07 

main  stream,  defined  28 
Ma-lav'  Peninsula  220 
Ma-nd'fts  173 
Man'ches-ter,  Eng.  186 
Manchester,  N.  11.  03 
Man-chi|'ri-a  228 
Man-hai'tan  104 
Ma-uil'a  153 
Man-i-tO'ba  156 
manufacturinj;  34-36 
in   the   United    States  84, 

92-S14,  112,  130,266 
maple  sugar  1)6 
maps  07-<i!l,  91 
map  symbols  68 
Mii-rii-eni'bo  177 
marble  24,  95,  96,  204 
Marseille  (mar-sa'y')  198 
Mar'y-land  ("nier'-)  109-113 
Maskat  (niQs-kilt')  220 
Mas-sa-chi('setts  91-97 
ma't#  174 
mayor  50 

meat  industry  21,  254 
Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an  Sea  241 
Mek'ka  220 
Me-kons'  Kiver  220 
Mel'boume  251 
Mem'phis  121 
Mer-ced'  River  141 
M6r'i-den  93 
Me-rid'i-an  122 
meridians  57,  59,  68 
Mes-o-po-ta'mi-ii  220 
metals  4,  24-27  ,'84 
Mex'i-co  159-161,  74,  256 
Mexico,  city  l60 
Michigan    (mish'1-gan)    123- 

132 
Michigan,  Lake  77 
Middle  Atlantic  States  90 
Mil'an  206 
milk  2.  18 
millet  224 
Mil-wau'kee  132 
Min-da-na'o  152 
minini;  24-27,  i:J8 
Min-nc-ap'o-lis  133,  127,  130, 

2.-)3 
Min-ne-so'ta  123-133 
Mi8-si»-8ip'pi  115-122 
Mississippi  River  28,  76,  118 


Mis-s»!('rl  12;J-133 

Missouri  Hivor  70 

Mo-bilc'  122 

Mo'liawk  Kiver  100 

moisture  48,  49 

.Mo'kAa  220 

Mol-l<Mi'(lo  170 

nion'are/i-y  54 

Moij-gA'li-a  228 

Mongolian  race  232 

Mon-tii'na  135-140 

Mfin-te-ne'gro  208 

Mon-te-vid'e-o  174 

Mon-tre-al'  150,  157 

M(i-roc'oo  243 

.Mos'crno  211 

mountain  range  19 

mountains  19,  100 

MQ'nieA  191 

Mur'ray  Kiver  247 

Na'plej  a»4 

N;isli'ville  121 

Na-t;il'  245 

national  forests  22,  130 

natural  gas  102,  254  (map) 

Ne-bras'ka  123-133 

negroes  89,  111,  240 

Ne-pal'  223 

Neth'er-lands  192,  220,  250 

Ne-vii'da  135-140 

New'ark  107 

New  Hed'ford  93 

New  Hruns'wick  155,  156 

New  Kngland  States  91 

New'found-land  157 

New    Guinea     (gln'I)     226, 

251 
New  Hamp'shire  91-97 
New  lla'ven  94 
New  JSr'jey  99-103,  107 
New  Mex'i-co  135-140 
New  Or'le-ans  122,  255 
New  South  Wales  251 
New  York,  city  of  104,  126, 

42,  184,  193,  255 
New  York  (state)  99-107 
New  Zea'land  251 
Ni-ag'a-ra  Falls  100 
Nic-a-ra'g^ia  161-102 
Ni'ger  River  239 
night  57,  62,  65 
Nile  River  239,  241-242 
ni'trate  175 
nom'ads  218 
Nome  148 
Nor'foik  113 
Norsc'men  195 
north,  defined  67,  58,  59 
North  A-mer'i-c^  71-81,  155, 
61 

climate  74 

rainfall  76 

rivers  76 

size  71 

surface  75 

winds  76 
North  Cape  195 
North  Car-o-li'na  109-113 
North  Central  States  123 
North  Da-ko'ta  123-133 
Niirthcrn  Hemisphere  68 
North  Krig'id  Zone  63 
North  I'ole  57 
North  Star  69 
North  Temperate  Zone  64 
Nor'way  191 


No'va  Scotia  (skO'shya)  166, 

157 
nurseries  105 
O-a'hj!  152 
o-ii'sej  8 
ob'e-lisks  243 
ocean  31-34,  61 
ocean  commerce  42 
ocean  currents  32 
(>-des'sa211 
O-hi'o  123-132 
Ohio  River  77,  101 
O-kla-ho'ma  115-122 
Oklahoma  Citv  121 
O'ma-ha  128,  133,  254 
O-miin'  220 
On-Ui'ri-o,  Lake  77 
Ontario,     province     of     155, 

156 
0-p6r't()  200 
Orange  Free  State  245 
oranges  143 
or'bit  of  the  earth  63 
Oregon  (6r'^-g6n)  141-145 
ores  4,  24,  26 
( )-ri-no'co  River  169 
O-sii'ka  232 
ostrich  239 
( )t'ta-wa  156 
outlet  of  a  lake  31 
ovsters34,  90,  112 
o'ziirk  Plateau  110,  123 
Pa-cif'ic  Ocean  61 
Pacific  States  141 
Pago  Pago  (pang'6  pang'o) 

163 
P51'es-tine  220 
pain 'pas  169 
Pan-a-mii'  71,  101-162 
Panama  Canal  149,  41 
Panama  hats  170 
)iaper  94 
Pa-rii'  171,  173 
Par'a-guay  174 
Paraguay  tea  174 
par'al-lels  57,  69,  68 
parcel  post  44 
PSr'is  108    ■ 
Par'lia-ment  189 
passes,  mountain  19 
Pat'er-son  107 
pavements  38 
Paw-tuck'et  93 
peaks  19 
peat  189 
Pe-king'  230 
pen-in'su-la  33 
Penn-syl-va'ni-a  99-103,  106 
Pe-o'ri-a  131 
Per-nam-bu'co  173 
Per'sia  (-sha)  221,  218 
Pe-ru'  176 

Petrograd  (pye-tro-grat')  210 
pe-tro'le-uin  '  102,    121,    144, 

254  (map) 
Phil-a-del'phl-a  106,  255 
Phil'ip-pine  Islands  152 
Phoe'nix  140 
phos'phate  rock  111 
phyj'i-cal  features  69 
physical  maps  09 
Pigd'mont  Plateau  109 
piers  42 
pineapples  111 
pilch  111 
Pitts'burgh  107,  129,  254 


plans  67 

plants,  recjuirements  of  9 

Pla'tii  Kiver  1(;9 

plateau  (|)la-to')  74,  99 

Plateau  States  136 

pl:it'i-num  210 

Po'land  190 

polar  regions  01 ,  02 

poles  57 

policemen  53 

po-lit'i-cal  maps  69 

Pon'ce  149 

ponds  31 

piipulationofcountries,states, 
cities  259-2ti2 

I'o  Kiver  203 

Port 'land,  Maine  96,  97 

Portland,  Oregon  143,  145 

Por'to  Ki'co  149,  162 

Por'tu-gal  199-200,  246 

potatoes  170,  190,  197 

Po-to'mac  River  114 

pottery  130 

Prague  207 

prairies  128 

precious  metals  138 

President  52 

Pri-bi-lof  Islands  148 

prime  meridian  59 

Prince  Edward  Island  166 

Proc'tor  95 

Prov'i-dence  97,  93 

Pufb'lo  138 

pueblos  88 

PiTget  Sound  141 

Ptjii'tii  A-re'nas  175 

Pyr'e-neej'l81,  199 

•luarrying  24 

(iu*-b6c'  (city)  157 

Quebec,  province  of  165,  156 

(.Queens  104 

quT'nine  170 

Quito  (ke  16)  177 

railroads  39-40,  38 
in  Africa  240,  244 
of  the  United  States  84 

rain  48,  75,  70,  136 

rainfall  75 
of  Africa  237 
of  Asia  217 
of  Australia  247 
of  Europe  183 
of  North  America  76 
of  South  America  107 
of  the  United  States  81 

Rai-nfer',  Mt.  141 

rapids,  defined  28 

raw  materials  34-36 

Kead'ing  107 

reaper  10 

reel  race  88 

reiii'deerO,  210.  217 

R'e'no  1.38 

reimblic  64 

res-er-va'tions  88 

rev-o-lu'tion  of  the  earth  63 

K/iine  River  183,  15 

KAode  Island  91-97 

RAone  River  181,  197 

rice  120,  1.52 

Rich'mond,  N.Y.  104 

Richmond.  Va.  113 

Ri'ga  196 

Ri'o  de  Janeiro   (zba-na'ro) 
173 

Ei'o  Gran'de  86 


266 


INDEX  AND   PRONUNCIATIONS 


river  basin  28 
rivei-s  27-31,  262 
work  of  11-13 
river  system  28 
roads  39 
Roch'es-ter  105 
rocks  broken  up  into  soil  10 
Rocky  Mountains  135 
Rome  204 

ro-ta'tion  of  crops  14 
rotation  of  the  earth  57 
Rot'ter-dam  193 
Rouen  (rwax)  198 
Roa-ina'ni-a  208 
rubber  171 

Russia  (rush'a)  210,  233 
Rutland  95 

Ru-wen-zo'ri  Mountains  237 
Sac-ra-men'lo  145 
Sag'i-naw  127 
Sa-hii'ra  7,  237 
St.  An'iho-ny,  Falls  of  133 
St.  Croia-  149 

St.  Elienne  (sax-ta-tyen')  198 
St.  John,  N.B.  15fi 
St.  Johns  157 
St.  Joseph  133 
St.  I.aw'rence  River  77,  157 
St.  Lou'is  128,  132,  255 
St.  Paul  1.33 
St.  Tftoin'as  149 
sSiin'on  30,  144 
Sa-lo-ni'cii  209 
salt  103,  130 
Salt  Lake  City  1.38 
Sal-va-dor'  lGl-162 
San  An-to'ni-o  120 
San  Di-e'go  145 
San  Fran-cis'co  145 
San  Joaquin  (wa-ken')  River 

141 
San  Juan  (hwiin)  149 
San-ti-a'go  175 
Santos  (sax'tu-sh)  173 
Saone  River  197 
Sar-din'i-a  203 
Sas-katcli'e-wan  156 
Sa-van'iiah  1 13 
sa-vaii'nas  2.37 
sawmills  23 
scali!  of  a  inaj)  07,  91 
Scan-di-iia'vi-an       I'eninsula 

181.  194 
Sefteldt  Kiver  192 
SeAe-nfc'la-dy  105 
Scot'land  185-189 
Scraii'ton  107 
sea,  defined  33 
sea  island  cotton  111 
seaLs  148 
seapoil-s  42,  43 
Se  at'tic  143,  145 
Se-bils'to-pftl  210 
sediment  12 

Seine  (san)  River  197,  198 
S6-oiil'  232 
Sei'l,i-:i  208 
Sh,in--liii'V  2.30 
Shan'ta,  Mt.  141 
8he.|.  3,  18-21,  137,  219 
Sheffield  180 
SliCfkH  220 
shilter  4,  0-8 
ghi|i  canalH  41 
■hipH  42,  43 


shoe  factories  93 

shore  line  32 

Shreve'port  121 

Sl-am'  226 

Si-be'ri-a  233 

Siberian  Plain  215 

Si9'i-ly  203 

Si-er'ra  Ne-va'da  141 

silk  3,  4.  232 

sil'vaj  169 

sUver  24,  84.  138,  160 

Sin-ga-p6re'  226 

Sinkiang  (sln-kyang')  228 

sinks  136 

S|-ou.T  City  133 

Sioux  Fails  i;33 

slate  24,  96 

S18-vaks'  206 

snow  49,  75,  76 

Sofia  (s6'f*-ya)  209 

soils  9-14 

soarccs  of  streams  28,  27 

south,  defined  57,  58,  69 

South  Africa  245 

South  A-m6r'i-ca  165,  61 

South  Atlantic  States  109 

South  Bend  131 

South  Car-o-li'na  109-113 

South  Central  States  116 

South  Da-ko'ta  123-133 

Southern  Hemisphere  68 

South  Frig'id  Zone  63 

South  Pole  67 

South  Temperate  Zone  64 

Spain  199-200 

Spo-kan«'  145 

sponge  fisheries  84,  163 

spring  (of  water)  27 

Spring'field,  111.  129,  131 

Springtield,  Ma.ss.  94 

states,  government  61,  53 

groups  of  89 
steamships  41-43 
steel  35 
steppes  210 
Stettin  (shte-ten')  191 
Stock'holni  196 
.stock  raising  9    ' 
.stockyards  21 
strait,  defined  34 
Straits  Settli'inents  226 
streams  1 1-13.  27-31 
street-s  of  a  city  37-38,  60,  63 
Strom'bft-li  204 
sub-ina-riiie'  cable  46 
subways  38 
Rn-diin'  244 
S(j-ez',  Isthnuia  of  213 
Suez  Canal  213,  241 
sugar  2 

sugar  beets  127,  137,  190 
sugar  cane  119 
sulphur  121 
Sul'tan  2(J8 
Su-mii'tra  220 
summer  62,  63 
sun  67,  (12,  63,  66 
Su-pf-'ri-or  127,  129 
Sii))erior,  Lake  77 
SnH-c|ue-han'na  Hiver  77,  101 
swamps  31 
Swe'den  194 
Swit/.'cr-land  201-203 
Syil'iiey  261 
Syr'a-ciiae  105 


Syr'i-a  220 

Ta-c6''ma  143,  145 

Tam'pa  113 

Tani-pi'co  160 

Tan-gan-yi'ka  Ter.  244 

Tan-gier'  243 

Ta?-ina'ni-a  247,  261 

tea  3.  225  " 

teak'wood  22-i 

Teheran  (te-h'riin')  221 

telegraph  46 

telephone  45 

temperate  regions  62,  63,  65 

life  in,  8 
Temjierate  Zones  64,  65 
Teii-nes-see'  115-122 
terraces  for  farming  15,  153 
Tex'as  ll.'i-122 
tex'tiles  198 

Thames  (temz)  River  187 
threshing  machine  16 
Ti-bet'  227 
Tibet,  Plateau  of  216 
Ti-en'tsin'  2.30 
Tifiis  (ty*-fly*s')  216 
Ti'gris  Kiver  220 
Ti-ti-ca'ca,  Lake  176 
tobacco  110,  120,  149 
To'ky-o  232 
To-le'do  127,  131 
T6m.sk  233 
To-ron'to  156,  157 
Tor'rid  Zone  64,  65 
trade  37 
trails  39 
trans-con-ti-nen'tal  railroads 

139 
trans-por-ta'tion  37-42 
Trans-viiffl'  246 
Tren'ton  107 
trib'u-ta-ries  28 
Tri-este'  205 
Trin'i-dad  163 
Trip'o-ll  243 
'I'ropic  of  Can'cer  63,  64 
Tropic  of  Cap'ri-corn  6.3,  64 
Troy  106 

truck  farming  16,  111 
tun'ihuj  210 
Tfi'iiis  243 
Tu^in  206 
Tur-ke-.stttn'  233 
Ttir-key  208-209,  219 
ttu'penline  111 
Tii-tu-i'lii  16.3 
I'-gaii'dii  (6o-)  244 
Ckrahie  211 

I'nion  of  South  Africa  245 
Uiiited  Kingdom  186 
Unitccl  Slates  81-163 

boundnries  81 

climate  74 

commerce  253-250 

government  58,  64 

grouijs  of  states  89 

history  85-89 

immigrants  184 

iiidustrii'S  81-85 

outlying  possessions  147 

rainfall  81 
IJ'ral  M.Miiitains  181,  210 
r'ni-guav  174 
I''la/i  1.36-140 
U'ti-c;i  1115 
VAl-duI'  Hills  210 


Valencia  (va-len  shl-a)  200 
valleys,  formation  of  12-13 
A'al-pa-r«i'so  176 
Van-cou'ver  156,  157 
vapor  47 
Val'i-can  204 
vegetable  gardens  16 
Ven-e-zue'la  177 
Ven'ice  205 

Ve'ra  Cruz  (croos')  160 
Ver-moni'  91-97 
Ve-su'vi-us,  Mount  204 
Vic-to'ri-;V,  Lake  237 
Victoria,  .state  251 
Vi-en'na  206 
Vir-gin'i-a  109-113 
VIs'ttl-la  Kiver  196 
Vla-di-v6s-t6k'  (-dyi-")  233 
vol-can'ic  cone  161 
vol-ca'nopj  161 
Vol'ga  River  183 
Walcj  185-189 
Wal'lham  (wol'-)  93 
War'saw  196 
Wash'ing-ton  (city)  114 
Washington  (state)  141-146 
Waterburv  (wa'ter-bfr-i)  93 
waterfall.s  28 

water  power  36,  91,  92,  109 
water  gaps  100 
water  vapor  47,  48 
waves  32 
weather  49 
well,  of  water  27 
west,  defined  57,  58,  59 
Western  Hemisphere  61 
West  In'dies  1()2.  256 
West  Virginia  109-1 13 
wharves  42 
wheat  2.  16,  16ti,  21t» 

in  the  United  States  (maps) 
127,  2.53 
Wheel'ing  113 
White  Mountains  91 
white  race  88,  218 
Wil-liim'ettc  Valley  142,  143 
Wil'niing-ton,  Del.  113 
Wihnington,  N.  C.  113 
windiniils  46,  193 
winds  4(i-47 
wiiiihvard.  deliiuHl  48 
Win'ni-iK'g  l.'iO 
winter  62,  63 
wireless  telesrraph  45 
Wis-con'sin '123-132 
wood  4 
wood  pulp  94 
wool  .3,  21 

woolen  manufacture  93 
Woivcs'ter  94 
WV-o'ming  1.35-140 
Vilk  227 

Viing'tze  River  228 
Yar'mouth  157 
yellow  race  89,  218 
S'eriou-slone  Nat.'l  Park  139 
Yellowslone  River  29,  139 
Yo'ko-ha'mii  232 
Yo-sem'i-l,u  Valley  141 
Youngs'town  129 
Yu-go-.slii'vi-j  208 
Yii'kon  River  149 
Zam-be'zi  Kivir  239 
zones  (i3-(i6 
Zu'ricft  202 


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